Explanation of Water as a Solvent for Life
Water is one of the most important ingredients in life. The hydrogen bonds will bind water molecules together until they fuse. When water is liquid, hydrogen bonds are so fragile that they are formed, separated and re-formed very quickly.
Water as a Solvent for Life
With the existence of hydrogen bonds can arrange water molecules so that it will have beneficial water properties. Some chemicals cannot form a solution, but are only dispersed in water.
Solution
the solution in this case is a mixture of two or more substances. Material that has dissolving properties is called a solvent. On the other hand, dissolved substances are called solutes. For example, one tablespoon of sugar is put into a glass filled with water, then the sugar will be dissolved in water. Sugar and water will become a uniform mixture of "homogeneous", sugar as a solute, while water as a solvent.
Another example is a solution of kitchen crystals that can also dissolve in water. Kitchen salt is an ionic sodium chloride "NaCI" compound, oxygen from negatively charged water molecules. The oxygen will bind to the sodium cation. Likewise, the chloride anion will attract positively charged hydrogen from water molecules. Water will penetrate the salt crystal and will eventually dissolve all the ions. The nature of water will separate sodium from chloride so that the two "sodium and chloride" solutes will be dissolved homogeneously in water.
Colloid
In this case, colloids are two or more substances whose mix is between homogeneous and heterogeneous. This is due to differences in particle size between the solute and the solvent. Colloidal particles cannot be seen on a regular microscope, but with an ultra microscope, examples of colloids are tomato mayonnaise sauce and milk clumping.
Suspension
Suspension is two substances which are mixed but heterogeneous, phase separation occurs between the solvent and the solute. This is also due to the large particle size of the solute compared to the platen, so the solute settles, for example starch in cold water.
From ancient times, chemists tried to find universal solvents that could dissolve all kinds of substances, but no one found a better solvent than water. Through the polarity of water molecules, water can be a versatile solvent for a particular substance based on particle size and relative surface area.
Mineral is a solid composed of chemical compounds that are formed naturally by inorganic events, which have regular atomic placement and have certain physical and physical properties.
The word mineral has many meanings, depending on what aspect we review it. Mineral in the sense of geology is a chemical substance or object which is composed of original or natural processes, has certain chemical and physical properties, and is usually solid. The original chemical compound is that minerals must be formed naturally by nature, because many substances that are the same nature as minerals can be made in the laboratory. Minerals are composed of atoms and molecules of different elements but have a regular pattern. Because of this regularity makes minerals have regular properties.
Mineralogy is a branch of geology that studies minerals, both in the form of individuals and in the form of unity, including learning about physical properties, chemical properties, how they are present, how they occur and how they are used. Minerology consists of the words mineral and logos, where the meaning of minerals has a different meaning and is even confused among the laity. Often interpreted as non-organic (inorganic) material. So a clear understanding of the mineral boundaries by some geologists needs to be known even though in reality there is not a single general agreement for the definition (Danisworo, 1994).
Thus the discussion about the Explanation of Water as a Solvent for Life, hopefully with this review can add insight and knowledge of you all, thank you very much for visiting
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Types of Protein Based on Components
Types of Protein Based on Components
The types of proteins based on their constituent components are divided into 3, among others.
Simple Protein (Simple Protein)
simple protein is a tabf protein from hydrolysis, the total protein is a mixture of various amino acids.
Complex Protein
complex protein is a protein which is the result of total hydrolysis of that type of protein which consists of various kinds of amino acids besides that there are also other components such as metal elements, phosphate groups. etc
Protein Derivatives (Protein derivatives)
protein derivates are proteins that are a bond between (intermediate products) contained in the results of partial hydrolysis derived from native proteins.
Types of Protein Based on Protein Sources
The protein is divided into vegetable protein and animal protein:
Protein is less than perfect
imperfect proteins are proteins whose amino acids are complete but the amounts of some of these amino acids are small. The imperfect protein is unable to fulfill growth, but the imperfect protein can maintain pre-existing tissue.
Imperfect Protein
imperfect proteins are proteins that lack or also do not have essential amino acids. The imperfect protein is not able to fulfill growth and also maintain what has existed before.
Vegetable protein
Vegetable protein is a protein derived from plants or plants.
Animal protein
Vegetable protein is a protein found in animals.
Also Read Articles That May Be Related: Comprehensive Definition of the Characteristics and Functions of Epidermal Networks
Protein Function
The function of these proteins in general, protein functions as a body building agent and also the body's protector, metabolic booster and organ supporter in various activities, and there are many functions of protein are as follows:
Can help and also encourage growth and can maintain the composition of the body structure of cells, tissues to the organs of the body.
Protein is a source of carbohydrates.
Can help the body in the fight, destroy and can also neutralize substances from outside or foreign substances that enter the body.
Protein also functions as a supply of energy for the body.
The protein functions as dietary intake as well as being low in sugar.
Can maintain and also maintain the balance of acid base and body fluids because the protein also functions as a buffer.
Can regulate and also carry out the body's metabolism because protein is an enzyme which means proteins that activate and also enter chemical reactions.
The protein also functions as a biocatalyst
Protein is an ingredient in the synthesis of substances that are very important as well as a hormone, enzymes, antibodies and also chromosomes.
Sources of Protein
Cassava is cassava that has been dried in the sun to reduce the antinutrient content. Cassava can be used as an energy source in the ration, but its protein content is low. Use in rations should be less than 20%
Sorghum, palm oil and soybean meal
Soybean meal is a source of protein feed ingredients commonly used in poultry feed formulations. Soybean meal contains high protein and is rich in lysine, but methionine is low. Soybean meal is a by-product of soybean grinding after being extracted oil mechanically (expeller) or chemically (solvent). Soybean meal produced mechanically contains more oil and crude fiber, and less protein content compared to soybean meal produced using hexan solution. This soybean meal supplies nearly 25% of protein in poultry.
The availability of soybean meal in Indonesia does not exist, but is generally imported from several countries such as America and India. The nutritional content of soybean meal varies, depending on the type of processing such as solvent and expeller.
Soybean meal quality is listed, which consists of two qualities, namely quality 1 whose protein is higher than quality 2. The limiting factor of concern is the aflatoxin content which must not exceed 50 ppb.
Fish flour
Fish meal is a source of animal protein which is often used for chicken because it has good quality protein and amino acid sources. Some flour is imported and some is local.
Fish flour imported from America has the names herring meal, white fish meal, and menhaden meal which are distinguished based on the type of fish used. The quality of imported fish meal was measured at density of 674 kg / m cubic.
The use of fish meal in rations> 2% causes fishy odors in eggs and meat. In addition, excessive use causes symptoms of erosin in gizzard, especially young chickens.
Local fish meal has a very varied nutrient content because it comes from nonstandard fish species or from fish processing waste. Before use, it is better to analyze fish meal with crude protein and calcium content. Fish meal derived from fish processing waste (consisting of heads and bones) generally contains higher ash content than whole fish.
The quality of fish flour is controlled by. According to SNI the fish meal used in the free-range chicken ration is free of Salmonella.
Coconut cake
Coconut industry waste that can be used as animal feed is coconut cake. The quality of coconut cake varies depending on the way it is processed and the quality of raw materials. Based on its chemical composition, coconut cake includes a source of protein for livestock, the protein contained therein is 21%. In its use, especially for monogastric, it is necessary to consider the balance of amino acids, because coconut cake lacks the amino acids lysine and histidine. Coconut cake can be used for poultry should not be more than 20%.
Coconut cake is a by-product obtained from the extraction of fresh or dried coconut flesh and can be used as a source of protein. The limitations on the use of coconut cake in rations are caused by low protein digestibility, imbalance of lysine and methionine, and easy rancidity if stored for too long due to high oil content. The quality of coconut flour has been standardized with SNI 01-2904-1992.
Peanut meal
Peanut meal is a by-product of grinding peanut seeds after oil extraction mechanically (expeller) or chemically (solvent). Peanut meal is a source of protein for chicken. Its use in rations is limited because it contains high crude fiber.
Meat and bone flour
Meat and bone flour is a food source of animal protein. The quality varies depending on the amount of bone used. If the bone used to make high MBM, it can be seen from the high ash and mineral content of Ca and P. MBM as a feed source for protein sources has 50% protein content and can contribute quite high Ca in the feed.
The types of proteins based on their constituent components are divided into 3, among others.
Simple Protein (Simple Protein)
simple protein is a tabf protein from hydrolysis, the total protein is a mixture of various amino acids.
Complex Protein
complex protein is a protein which is the result of total hydrolysis of that type of protein which consists of various kinds of amino acids besides that there are also other components such as metal elements, phosphate groups. etc
Protein Derivatives (Protein derivatives)
protein derivates are proteins that are a bond between (intermediate products) contained in the results of partial hydrolysis derived from native proteins.
Types of Protein Based on Protein Sources
The protein is divided into vegetable protein and animal protein:
Protein is less than perfect
imperfect proteins are proteins whose amino acids are complete but the amounts of some of these amino acids are small. The imperfect protein is unable to fulfill growth, but the imperfect protein can maintain pre-existing tissue.
Imperfect Protein
imperfect proteins are proteins that lack or also do not have essential amino acids. The imperfect protein is not able to fulfill growth and also maintain what has existed before.
Vegetable protein
Vegetable protein is a protein derived from plants or plants.
Animal protein
Vegetable protein is a protein found in animals.
Also Read Articles That May Be Related: Comprehensive Definition of the Characteristics and Functions of Epidermal Networks
Protein Function
The function of these proteins in general, protein functions as a body building agent and also the body's protector, metabolic booster and organ supporter in various activities, and there are many functions of protein are as follows:
Can help and also encourage growth and can maintain the composition of the body structure of cells, tissues to the organs of the body.
Protein is a source of carbohydrates.
Can help the body in the fight, destroy and can also neutralize substances from outside or foreign substances that enter the body.
Protein also functions as a supply of energy for the body.
The protein functions as dietary intake as well as being low in sugar.
Can maintain and also maintain the balance of acid base and body fluids because the protein also functions as a buffer.
Can regulate and also carry out the body's metabolism because protein is an enzyme which means proteins that activate and also enter chemical reactions.
The protein also functions as a biocatalyst
Protein is an ingredient in the synthesis of substances that are very important as well as a hormone, enzymes, antibodies and also chromosomes.
Sources of Protein
Cassava is cassava that has been dried in the sun to reduce the antinutrient content. Cassava can be used as an energy source in the ration, but its protein content is low. Use in rations should be less than 20%
Sorghum, palm oil and soybean meal
Soybean meal is a source of protein feed ingredients commonly used in poultry feed formulations. Soybean meal contains high protein and is rich in lysine, but methionine is low. Soybean meal is a by-product of soybean grinding after being extracted oil mechanically (expeller) or chemically (solvent). Soybean meal produced mechanically contains more oil and crude fiber, and less protein content compared to soybean meal produced using hexan solution. This soybean meal supplies nearly 25% of protein in poultry.
The availability of soybean meal in Indonesia does not exist, but is generally imported from several countries such as America and India. The nutritional content of soybean meal varies, depending on the type of processing such as solvent and expeller.
Soybean meal quality is listed, which consists of two qualities, namely quality 1 whose protein is higher than quality 2. The limiting factor of concern is the aflatoxin content which must not exceed 50 ppb.
Fish flour
Fish meal is a source of animal protein which is often used for chicken because it has good quality protein and amino acid sources. Some flour is imported and some is local.
Fish flour imported from America has the names herring meal, white fish meal, and menhaden meal which are distinguished based on the type of fish used. The quality of imported fish meal was measured at density of 674 kg / m cubic.
The use of fish meal in rations> 2% causes fishy odors in eggs and meat. In addition, excessive use causes symptoms of erosin in gizzard, especially young chickens.
Local fish meal has a very varied nutrient content because it comes from nonstandard fish species or from fish processing waste. Before use, it is better to analyze fish meal with crude protein and calcium content. Fish meal derived from fish processing waste (consisting of heads and bones) generally contains higher ash content than whole fish.
The quality of fish flour is controlled by. According to SNI the fish meal used in the free-range chicken ration is free of Salmonella.
Coconut cake
Coconut industry waste that can be used as animal feed is coconut cake. The quality of coconut cake varies depending on the way it is processed and the quality of raw materials. Based on its chemical composition, coconut cake includes a source of protein for livestock, the protein contained therein is 21%. In its use, especially for monogastric, it is necessary to consider the balance of amino acids, because coconut cake lacks the amino acids lysine and histidine. Coconut cake can be used for poultry should not be more than 20%.
Coconut cake is a by-product obtained from the extraction of fresh or dried coconut flesh and can be used as a source of protein. The limitations on the use of coconut cake in rations are caused by low protein digestibility, imbalance of lysine and methionine, and easy rancidity if stored for too long due to high oil content. The quality of coconut flour has been standardized with SNI 01-2904-1992.
Peanut meal
Peanut meal is a by-product of grinding peanut seeds after oil extraction mechanically (expeller) or chemically (solvent). Peanut meal is a source of protein for chicken. Its use in rations is limited because it contains high crude fiber.
Meat and bone flour
Meat and bone flour is a food source of animal protein. The quality varies depending on the amount of bone used. If the bone used to make high MBM, it can be seen from the high ash and mineral content of Ca and P. MBM as a feed source for protein sources has 50% protein content and can contribute quite high Ca in the feed.
Combined Protein which is a Protein Composed and Non-Protein Groups
Combined Protein which is a Protein Composed and Non-Protein Groups
Combined protein which is a protein composed of proteins and non-protein groups. This group is called a prosthetic group and consists of carbohydrates, lipids or nucleic acids:
Posferoprotein:
contains folic acid groups which are bound to the hydraulics of serine and theroin. Lots found in milk and egg yolks.
Lipoprotein:
contains fatty acid lipids, listin. So that it has the capacity as a good emulsifying agent, found in eggs, milk and blood.
Nucleoprotein:
a combination of nucleic acids and proteins. For example: mucin in saliva, ovomucin in eggs, nucleoid in serum.
Chromoprotein:
combination of proteins with pigmented groups which usually contain metal elements. Example: hemoglobin, myglobulin, chlorophyll and flavoprotein.
Metalloprotein:
is a major complex between proteins and metals as well as chromator protein. Example: ferritrin (containing Fe), coalbumin (containing CO and Zn).
Also Read Articles That May Be Related: "Nucleus (Core Cell)" Definition & (Structure - Function)
Globulin
Soluble in neutral salt solution, but not soluble in water. Coagulated by heat and will settle to a high concentration of salting solution (salting out) in the body there are many antibodies and fibrinogen. In milk there is in the form of lactoglobulin, in eggs ovoglobulin, in the meat of myosin and acitin and in soybeans called glycillin or generally in legumes called legumin.
Glutelin
Soluble in dilute acids and bases, but not soluble in neutral solvents. Example: gluten in wheat and oryzenin in rice.
Prolanin
Soluble in ethanol 50-90% and insoluble in water. This protein contains a lot of proline and glutamic acid, and there are many in the serelia. For example: zein in corn, gliadin in wheat, and cordurine in barley.
Scleroprotein
Insoluble in water and neutral solvent and resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis. This protein functions as a protective structure in humans and animals. Examples of collagen, elastin, and keratin.
Histones
Is a basic protein, because it contains lysine and arginine. Is soluble in water and will be clotted by ammonia.
Globulin
Almost the same as histones. Globulin is rich in arginine, tryptophan, histidine but does not contain isoleucines found in the blood (hemoglobin).
Protein
A very simple protein, BM is relatively low (4000-8000), rich in arginine, soluble in water and coagulated by heat and is basic.
Simple proteins according to their molecular shape are divided into 2 groups, namely:
Fiber protein (= skleroprotein = albumoid = skrelin)
Fibers are long and are bound together as fibrils by hydrogen bonds. Insoluble in water, so this lack of solution results in strong intermolecular forces. For example, keratin (hair, nails, feathers, horns), in kalogen (connective tissue), fibroin (silk) and myosin (muscle).
These fibrous proteins are fibrous; insoluble in dilute solvents, either salt, base or alcohol solutions. The molecule consists of a long chain of molecules, parallel to the main chain, does not form crystals and when pulled extends back to its original shape. The function of this protein is to form the structure of materials and tissues, for example keratin in the hair. This protein molecule consists of several polypeptide chains that extend and are connected to each other by several cross bonds to form a stable fiber or fiber. Its large molecular weight cannot be determined with starch and is difficult to be purified.
Globural protein
Globural protein shaped like a ball, found in many animal ingredients (milk, meat, eggs). This protein dissolves easily in salts and dilute acids and is easily changed due to the influence of temperature, concentration of salt, acids and bases and is easily denatured. Globular proteins are generally round or elliptical and consist of the polypeptide chains involved.
Types of Protein
In these proteins there are types or kinds of proteins that are divided into 3 parts, including the following:
Types of Protein Based on Function
Protein based on its function consists of 3 types, including the following:
Perfect Protein
Perfect protein is a protein which contains a complete amino acid. That perfect protein is generally found in animal protein.
Combined protein which is a protein composed of proteins and non-protein groups. This group is called a prosthetic group and consists of carbohydrates, lipids or nucleic acids:
Posferoprotein:
contains folic acid groups which are bound to the hydraulics of serine and theroin. Lots found in milk and egg yolks.
Lipoprotein:
contains fatty acid lipids, listin. So that it has the capacity as a good emulsifying agent, found in eggs, milk and blood.
Nucleoprotein:
a combination of nucleic acids and proteins. For example: mucin in saliva, ovomucin in eggs, nucleoid in serum.
Chromoprotein:
combination of proteins with pigmented groups which usually contain metal elements. Example: hemoglobin, myglobulin, chlorophyll and flavoprotein.
Metalloprotein:
is a major complex between proteins and metals as well as chromator protein. Example: ferritrin (containing Fe), coalbumin (containing CO and Zn).
Also Read Articles That May Be Related: "Nucleus (Core Cell)" Definition & (Structure - Function)
Globulin
Soluble in neutral salt solution, but not soluble in water. Coagulated by heat and will settle to a high concentration of salting solution (salting out) in the body there are many antibodies and fibrinogen. In milk there is in the form of lactoglobulin, in eggs ovoglobulin, in the meat of myosin and acitin and in soybeans called glycillin or generally in legumes called legumin.
Glutelin
Soluble in dilute acids and bases, but not soluble in neutral solvents. Example: gluten in wheat and oryzenin in rice.
Prolanin
Soluble in ethanol 50-90% and insoluble in water. This protein contains a lot of proline and glutamic acid, and there are many in the serelia. For example: zein in corn, gliadin in wheat, and cordurine in barley.
Scleroprotein
Insoluble in water and neutral solvent and resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis. This protein functions as a protective structure in humans and animals. Examples of collagen, elastin, and keratin.
Histones
Is a basic protein, because it contains lysine and arginine. Is soluble in water and will be clotted by ammonia.
Globulin
Almost the same as histones. Globulin is rich in arginine, tryptophan, histidine but does not contain isoleucines found in the blood (hemoglobin).
Protein
A very simple protein, BM is relatively low (4000-8000), rich in arginine, soluble in water and coagulated by heat and is basic.
Simple proteins according to their molecular shape are divided into 2 groups, namely:
Fiber protein (= skleroprotein = albumoid = skrelin)
Fibers are long and are bound together as fibrils by hydrogen bonds. Insoluble in water, so this lack of solution results in strong intermolecular forces. For example, keratin (hair, nails, feathers, horns), in kalogen (connective tissue), fibroin (silk) and myosin (muscle).
These fibrous proteins are fibrous; insoluble in dilute solvents, either salt, base or alcohol solutions. The molecule consists of a long chain of molecules, parallel to the main chain, does not form crystals and when pulled extends back to its original shape. The function of this protein is to form the structure of materials and tissues, for example keratin in the hair. This protein molecule consists of several polypeptide chains that extend and are connected to each other by several cross bonds to form a stable fiber or fiber. Its large molecular weight cannot be determined with starch and is difficult to be purified.
Globural protein
Globural protein shaped like a ball, found in many animal ingredients (milk, meat, eggs). This protein dissolves easily in salts and dilute acids and is easily changed due to the influence of temperature, concentration of salt, acids and bases and is easily denatured. Globular proteins are generally round or elliptical and consist of the polypeptide chains involved.
Types of Protein
In these proteins there are types or kinds of proteins that are divided into 3 parts, including the following:
Types of Protein Based on Function
Protein based on its function consists of 3 types, including the following:
Perfect Protein
Perfect protein is a protein which contains a complete amino acid. That perfect protein is generally found in animal protein.
Antiparallel Conformation and Tertiary Structure of Protein
Antiparallel Conformation and Tertiary Structure of Protein
The tertiary structure of a protein is the overall fold of the polypeptide chain so that it forms a certain 3-dimensional structure. For example, the tertiary structure of an enzyme is often dense, globular in shape. A tertiary structure is a combination of a variety of secondary structures. Tertiary structures are usually lumps. Some protein molecules can interact physically without covalent bonds to form stable oligomers (for example dimers, trimers, or quarters) and form quaternary structures.
These folds are controlled by hydrophobic interactions, but the structure can be stable only if the parts of the protein are locked into place by specific tertiary interactions, such as salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and tight side chain packaging and disulfide bonds.
The tertiary structure of a protein is an overlapping layer over a secondary structural pattern consisting of irregular twists of bonds between side chains (R groups) of various amino acids (Figure 9). This structure is a three-dimensional conformation that refers to the spatial relationship between secondary structures. This structure is stabilized by four types of bonds, namely hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrophobic bonds. In this structure, hydrophobic bonds are very important for proteins. Amino acids that have hydrophobic properties will bind to the inside of globular proteins that don't bind to water, while amino acids that are hodrophilic in general will be on the outer surface of the surface that binds to the surrounding water (Murray et al, 2009; Lehninger et al., 2004).
Secondary structure
The secondary structure of proteins is regular, the pattern of repeated folds of the protein skeleton. The two most patterns are alpha helix and beta sheet. The secondary structure of proteins is the local three-dimensional structure of various amino acid sequences in proteins that are stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Various forms of secondary structures, for example, are as follows:
alpha helix (α-helix, "torsion-alpha"), in the form of a twisted chain of amino acids shaped like a spiral;
beta-sheet (β-sheet, "beta-plate"), in the form of wide sheets composed of a number of amino acid chains bound together through hydrogen bonds or thiol (S-H) bonds;
beta-turn, (β-turn, "beta-indentation"); and gamma-turn, (γ-turn, "gamma-indentation").
The secondary structure is a combination of the primary structure which is linearly stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the CO = and NH groups along the polypeptide spine. One example of a secondary structure is α-helical and β-pleated (Figures 4 and 5). This structure has segments in the polypeptide that are twisted or folded repeatedly. (Campbell et al., 2009; Conn, 2008).
Secondary structure
The α-helical structure is formed between each of the carbonyl oxygen atoms in a peptide bond with hydrogen attached to the amide group in a peptide bond of four amino acid residues along the polypeptide chain (Murray et al, 2009).
In the secondary structure β-pleated is formed through hydrogen bonds between linear regions of the polypeptide chain. β-pleated two forms are found, namely antiparrel and parallel (Figures 6 and 7). Both are different in terms of the hydrogen bonding pattern. In the form of antiparrel conformation has a bond conformation of 7 Å, while conformation in the parallel form is shorter which is 6.5 Å (Lehninger et al, 2004). If this hydrogen bond can be formed between two separate polypeptide chains or between two regions in a single chain that folds itself which involves four amino acid structures, then it is known as β turn shown in Figure 8 (Murray et al, 2009).
Tertiary structure and quaternary structure
Some proteins are composed of more than one polypeptide chain. Quartener structures describe different subunits that are used together to form protein structures.
The quaternary structure is a picture of the arrangement of sub-units or protein promoters in space. This structure has two or more of the protein sub-units with tertiary structures that will form functional protein complexes. the bonds that play a role in this structure are noncovalent bonds, namely electrostatic, hydrogen and hydrophobic interactions. Proteins with quaternary structures are often referred to as multimeric proteins. If a protein composed of two subunits is called a dimeric protein and if it is made up of four subunits it is called a tetrameric protein (Figure 10) (Lodish et al., 2003; Murray et al, 2009).
The tertiary structure of a protein is the overall fold of the polypeptide chain so that it forms a certain 3-dimensional structure. For example, the tertiary structure of an enzyme is often dense, globular in shape. A tertiary structure is a combination of a variety of secondary structures. Tertiary structures are usually lumps. Some protein molecules can interact physically without covalent bonds to form stable oligomers (for example dimers, trimers, or quarters) and form quaternary structures.
These folds are controlled by hydrophobic interactions, but the structure can be stable only if the parts of the protein are locked into place by specific tertiary interactions, such as salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and tight side chain packaging and disulfide bonds.
The tertiary structure of a protein is an overlapping layer over a secondary structural pattern consisting of irregular twists of bonds between side chains (R groups) of various amino acids (Figure 9). This structure is a three-dimensional conformation that refers to the spatial relationship between secondary structures. This structure is stabilized by four types of bonds, namely hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and hydrophobic bonds. In this structure, hydrophobic bonds are very important for proteins. Amino acids that have hydrophobic properties will bind to the inside of globular proteins that don't bind to water, while amino acids that are hodrophilic in general will be on the outer surface of the surface that binds to the surrounding water (Murray et al, 2009; Lehninger et al., 2004).
Secondary structure
The secondary structure of proteins is regular, the pattern of repeated folds of the protein skeleton. The two most patterns are alpha helix and beta sheet. The secondary structure of proteins is the local three-dimensional structure of various amino acid sequences in proteins that are stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Various forms of secondary structures, for example, are as follows:
alpha helix (α-helix, "torsion-alpha"), in the form of a twisted chain of amino acids shaped like a spiral;
beta-sheet (β-sheet, "beta-plate"), in the form of wide sheets composed of a number of amino acid chains bound together through hydrogen bonds or thiol (S-H) bonds;
beta-turn, (β-turn, "beta-indentation"); and gamma-turn, (γ-turn, "gamma-indentation").
The secondary structure is a combination of the primary structure which is linearly stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the CO = and NH groups along the polypeptide spine. One example of a secondary structure is α-helical and β-pleated (Figures 4 and 5). This structure has segments in the polypeptide that are twisted or folded repeatedly. (Campbell et al., 2009; Conn, 2008).
Secondary structure
The α-helical structure is formed between each of the carbonyl oxygen atoms in a peptide bond with hydrogen attached to the amide group in a peptide bond of four amino acid residues along the polypeptide chain (Murray et al, 2009).
In the secondary structure β-pleated is formed through hydrogen bonds between linear regions of the polypeptide chain. β-pleated two forms are found, namely antiparrel and parallel (Figures 6 and 7). Both are different in terms of the hydrogen bonding pattern. In the form of antiparrel conformation has a bond conformation of 7 Å, while conformation in the parallel form is shorter which is 6.5 Å (Lehninger et al, 2004). If this hydrogen bond can be formed between two separate polypeptide chains or between two regions in a single chain that folds itself which involves four amino acid structures, then it is known as β turn shown in Figure 8 (Murray et al, 2009).
Tertiary structure and quaternary structure
Some proteins are composed of more than one polypeptide chain. Quartener structures describe different subunits that are used together to form protein structures.
The quaternary structure is a picture of the arrangement of sub-units or protein promoters in space. This structure has two or more of the protein sub-units with tertiary structures that will form functional protein complexes. the bonds that play a role in this structure are noncovalent bonds, namely electrostatic, hydrogen and hydrophobic interactions. Proteins with quaternary structures are often referred to as multimeric proteins. If a protein composed of two subunits is called a dimeric protein and if it is made up of four subunits it is called a tetrameric protein (Figure 10) (Lodish et al., 2003; Murray et al, 2009).
Protein Primary Structure
Protein Primary Structure
A kind of amino acid
There are 20 kinds of amino acids, each of which is determined by the type of R group or side chain of amino acids. If the R group is different then the type of amino acid is different. For example, the amino acids serine, aspartic acid and leucine have differences only in the type of R group
The R groups of amino acids vary in size, shape, charge, hydrogen binding capacity and chemical reactivity. The twenty types of amino acids have never changed. The simplest amino acid is glycine with H atoms as side chains. Next is alanine with a methyl group (-CH3) as a side chain.
Peptide Bonds
The twenty kinds of amino acids bind together, in a variety of order to form proteins. The process of forming proteins from amino acids is called protein synthesis. The bond between one amino acid and another is called a peptide bond. This peptide bond can also be called an amide bond.
Try to review the basic structure of amino acids. In proteins or amino acid chains, the carboxyl group (-COOH) binds to the amino group (-NH2). Each peptide bond is formed, issued 1 water molecule (H2O).
Protein Structure
Proteins made up of amino acid chains will have a variety of structures that are unique to each protein. Because proteins are composed of amino acids that are chemically different, a protein will be strung through peptide bonds and sometimes even connected by sulfide bonds. Furthermore, proteins can be folded to form various structures.
There are 4 levels of protein structure namely primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure.
Primary structure
The primary structure is a simple structure with sequences of amino acids arranged in a linear fashion similar to the order of letters in a word and no chain branching occurs.
Primary structure
The primary structure is formed by the bond between the α-amino group and the α-carboxyl group (Figure 3). These bonds are called peptide bonds or amide bonds. This structure can determine the order of an amino acid from a polypeptide.
Peptide formation reaction
Frederick Sanger was a scientist who contributed to the discovery of methods for determining amino acid sequences in proteins, with the use of several protease enzymes that slice the bonds between certain amino acids into shorter peptide fragments to be further separated with the help of chromatographic paper. The amino acid sequence determines the function of proteins, in 1957, Vernon Ingram found that amino acid translocation would change the function of proteins, and further trigger genetic mutations.
The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain. The primary structure is caused by covalent bonds or peptides, which are made during the process of protein biosynthesis or called the translation process. The two ends of the polypeptide chain are called carboxyl (C-terminal) and amino (N-terminal) ends based on the nature of the free group. Residue calculations always begin at the end of the N-terminal (amino group, -NH2), which is the end where the amino group is not involved in the peptide bond. The primary structure of proteins is determined by genes associated with proteins. A certain sequence of nucleotides in DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is read by ribosomes in a process called translation. Protein sequences can be determined by methods such as Edman's degradation.
Quartener structure
Judging from its structure, proteins can be divided into 2 groups, namely:
A simple protein which is a protein consisting only of amino acid molecules. Included in the group for example:
Protamin
This protein is alkaline and does not experience coagulation on heating.
Albumin
Protein is soluble in water and aqueous salt solution, the BM is relatively low. Albumin is found in egg white (egg albumin), milk (lactalbumin), blood (blood albumin) and vegetables.
A kind of amino acid
There are 20 kinds of amino acids, each of which is determined by the type of R group or side chain of amino acids. If the R group is different then the type of amino acid is different. For example, the amino acids serine, aspartic acid and leucine have differences only in the type of R group
The R groups of amino acids vary in size, shape, charge, hydrogen binding capacity and chemical reactivity. The twenty types of amino acids have never changed. The simplest amino acid is glycine with H atoms as side chains. Next is alanine with a methyl group (-CH3) as a side chain.
Peptide Bonds
The twenty kinds of amino acids bind together, in a variety of order to form proteins. The process of forming proteins from amino acids is called protein synthesis. The bond between one amino acid and another is called a peptide bond. This peptide bond can also be called an amide bond.
Try to review the basic structure of amino acids. In proteins or amino acid chains, the carboxyl group (-COOH) binds to the amino group (-NH2). Each peptide bond is formed, issued 1 water molecule (H2O).
Protein Structure
Proteins made up of amino acid chains will have a variety of structures that are unique to each protein. Because proteins are composed of amino acids that are chemically different, a protein will be strung through peptide bonds and sometimes even connected by sulfide bonds. Furthermore, proteins can be folded to form various structures.
There are 4 levels of protein structure namely primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary structure and quaternary structure.
Primary structure
The primary structure is a simple structure with sequences of amino acids arranged in a linear fashion similar to the order of letters in a word and no chain branching occurs.
Primary structure
The primary structure is formed by the bond between the α-amino group and the α-carboxyl group (Figure 3). These bonds are called peptide bonds or amide bonds. This structure can determine the order of an amino acid from a polypeptide.
Peptide formation reaction
Frederick Sanger was a scientist who contributed to the discovery of methods for determining amino acid sequences in proteins, with the use of several protease enzymes that slice the bonds between certain amino acids into shorter peptide fragments to be further separated with the help of chromatographic paper. The amino acid sequence determines the function of proteins, in 1957, Vernon Ingram found that amino acid translocation would change the function of proteins, and further trigger genetic mutations.
The primary structure of a protein refers to the linear amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain. The primary structure is caused by covalent bonds or peptides, which are made during the process of protein biosynthesis or called the translation process. The two ends of the polypeptide chain are called carboxyl (C-terminal) and amino (N-terminal) ends based on the nature of the free group. Residue calculations always begin at the end of the N-terminal (amino group, -NH2), which is the end where the amino group is not involved in the peptide bond. The primary structure of proteins is determined by genes associated with proteins. A certain sequence of nucleotides in DNA is transcribed into mRNA, which is read by ribosomes in a process called translation. Protein sequences can be determined by methods such as Edman's degradation.
Quartener structure
Judging from its structure, proteins can be divided into 2 groups, namely:
A simple protein which is a protein consisting only of amino acid molecules. Included in the group for example:
Protamin
This protein is alkaline and does not experience coagulation on heating.
Albumin
Protein is soluble in water and aqueous salt solution, the BM is relatively low. Albumin is found in egg white (egg albumin), milk (lactalbumin), blood (blood albumin) and vegetables.
Complete Definition of Protein Type and Function
Complete Definition of Protein Type and Function
Protein: Definition, Function, Source, Benefits, Elements and Structure are complex organic compounds with high molecular weight, which are polymers of amino acid monomers
Definition of Protein
Proteins are high molecular weight complex organic compounds which are polymers of amino acid monomers that are connected to each other by peptide bonds. Protein molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur and phosphorus. Protein plays an important role in the structure and function of all living cells and viruses. Most of the protein is an enzyme or enzyme subunit. Other types of proteins play a role in structural or mechanical functions, such as proteins that make up the cytoskeleton in the rods and joints.
Protein is involved in the immune system (immune) as an antibody, a control system in the form of hormones, as a storage component (in seeds) and also in nutrient transportation. As one source of nutrition, protein acts as a source of amino acids for organisms that are unable to form these amino acids (heterotrophs). Protein is one of the giant biomolecules, in addition to polysaccharides, lipids and polynucleotides, which are the main constituents of living things. In addition, protein is one of the most studied molecules in biochemistry.
Protein was discovered by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1838. Biosynthesis of natural proteins equals genetic expression. The genetic code carried by DNA is transcribed into RNA, which acts as a template for the translation by the ribosome. Until this stage, the protein is still "raw", only composed of proteinogenic amino acids. Through the post-translational mechanism, proteins are formed which have full biological functions. Sources of protein come from Meat, Fish, Eggs, Milk, and similar products of Quarks, Plant seeds, Tribes of legumes and Potatoes.
Protein (protos which means "foremost") is a complex organic compound that has a high molecular weight which is a polymer of amino acid monomers that are connected to each other by peptide bonds. Peptides and proteins are amino acid condensation polymers by removing water elements from amino groups and carboxyl groups.
If the molecular weight of a compound is less than 6,000, it is usually classified as a polypeptide. Proetin is contained in many foods that are often consumed by humans. As in tempeh, tofu, fish and so on. In general, the source of protein is from vegetable and animal sources. Protein is very important for the life of organisms in general, because it functions to repair damaged body cells and supply the nutrients the body needs. So, it is important for us to know about protein and related matters. Protein is one of the giant biomolecules in addition to polysaccharides, lipids and polynucleotides which are the main constituents of living things.
Proteins are high molecular weight complex organic compounds which are polymers of amino acid monomers that are connected to each other by peptide bonds. The protein molecule itself contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitroge and sometimes sulfur and phosphorus. The protein was formulated by Jons Jakob Berzelius in 1938.
Components of Protein Components
The basic unit of protein structure is amino acids. Amino acids are organic compounds that contain amino groups (NH2), a carboxylic acid group (COOH), and one of the other groups, especially from a group of 20 compounds that have the basic formula NH2CHRCOOH, and are linked together by peptide bonds. In other words, proteins are composed of amino acids that bind to one another.
Amino acid structure An amino-α acid consists of:
Atom C α. Called α because it is next to a carboxyl (acid) group.
The H atom is bound to the C α atom.
Carboxyl groups are bound to the C α atom.
The amino group is bound to the C α atom.
The R group which is also bound to the C α atom.
Protein: Definition, Function, Source, Benefits, Elements and Structure are complex organic compounds with high molecular weight, which are polymers of amino acid monomers
Definition of Protein
Proteins are high molecular weight complex organic compounds which are polymers of amino acid monomers that are connected to each other by peptide bonds. Protein molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur and phosphorus. Protein plays an important role in the structure and function of all living cells and viruses. Most of the protein is an enzyme or enzyme subunit. Other types of proteins play a role in structural or mechanical functions, such as proteins that make up the cytoskeleton in the rods and joints.
Protein is involved in the immune system (immune) as an antibody, a control system in the form of hormones, as a storage component (in seeds) and also in nutrient transportation. As one source of nutrition, protein acts as a source of amino acids for organisms that are unable to form these amino acids (heterotrophs). Protein is one of the giant biomolecules, in addition to polysaccharides, lipids and polynucleotides, which are the main constituents of living things. In addition, protein is one of the most studied molecules in biochemistry.
Protein was discovered by Jöns Jakob Berzelius in 1838. Biosynthesis of natural proteins equals genetic expression. The genetic code carried by DNA is transcribed into RNA, which acts as a template for the translation by the ribosome. Until this stage, the protein is still "raw", only composed of proteinogenic amino acids. Through the post-translational mechanism, proteins are formed which have full biological functions. Sources of protein come from Meat, Fish, Eggs, Milk, and similar products of Quarks, Plant seeds, Tribes of legumes and Potatoes.
Protein (protos which means "foremost") is a complex organic compound that has a high molecular weight which is a polymer of amino acid monomers that are connected to each other by peptide bonds. Peptides and proteins are amino acid condensation polymers by removing water elements from amino groups and carboxyl groups.
If the molecular weight of a compound is less than 6,000, it is usually classified as a polypeptide. Proetin is contained in many foods that are often consumed by humans. As in tempeh, tofu, fish and so on. In general, the source of protein is from vegetable and animal sources. Protein is very important for the life of organisms in general, because it functions to repair damaged body cells and supply the nutrients the body needs. So, it is important for us to know about protein and related matters. Protein is one of the giant biomolecules in addition to polysaccharides, lipids and polynucleotides which are the main constituents of living things.
Proteins are high molecular weight complex organic compounds which are polymers of amino acid monomers that are connected to each other by peptide bonds. The protein molecule itself contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitroge and sometimes sulfur and phosphorus. The protein was formulated by Jons Jakob Berzelius in 1938.
Components of Protein Components
The basic unit of protein structure is amino acids. Amino acids are organic compounds that contain amino groups (NH2), a carboxylic acid group (COOH), and one of the other groups, especially from a group of 20 compounds that have the basic formula NH2CHRCOOH, and are linked together by peptide bonds. In other words, proteins are composed of amino acids that bind to one another.
Amino acid structure An amino-α acid consists of:
Atom C α. Called α because it is next to a carboxyl (acid) group.
The H atom is bound to the C α atom.
Carboxyl groups are bound to the C α atom.
The amino group is bound to the C α atom.
The R group which is also bound to the C α atom.
Carbohydrate Testing Methods in Food
Carbohydrate Testing Methods in Food
The three reactions above have almost the same principle, namely using an aldehyde group in sugar to reduce the Cu2SO4 compound to Cu2O (brick red enpadan) after being heated in an alkaline atmosphere (Benedict and Fehling) or acid (Barfoed) with the addition of a binding agent (chelating agent) like Na-citrate and K-Na-tatrat.
Iodine reaction
KH (poilisaccharide) + Iod (I2) à specific color (black blue)
Seliwanoff's reaction
KH (ketose) + H2SO4 à furfural à + resorcinol à red color.
KH (aldosa) + H2SO4 à furfural à + resorcinol à negative
Osazon reaction
This reaction can be used both for aldose and ketose solutions, by adding a phenylhydrazine solution, then heated to form a yellow crystal called hydrazone (osazon).
Quantitative Test
For the determination of carbohydrate levels can be done by physical, chemical, enzymatic, and chromatographic methods (not discussed).
Physical Method
There are two (2) types, namely:
Based on the refractive index
This method uses a device called a refractometer, which is by the formula:
X = [(A + B) C - BD)]
Where :
X =% of sucrose or sugar obtained
A = weight of sample solution (g)
B = weight of diluent solution (g)
C =% sucrose in camp A and B in the table
D =% sucrose in thinner B
Based on optical rotation
This method is used based on the optical properties of sugars that have an asymmetrical structure (can rotate the plane of polarization) so that it can be measured using a device called a polarimeter or digital polarimeter (the result can be known directly) called a sacarimeter.
According to Biot law; "The optical rotation size of each individual sugar is proportional to the concentration of the solution and the thickness of the liquid" so that it can be calculated using the formula:
[a] D20 = 100 A
L x C
Where :
[a] D20 = rotation type at 20 oC using
D = yellow light at a wavelength of 589 nm from the Na lamp
A = observed angle of rotation
C = content (in g / 100 ml)
L = tube length (dm)
so C = 100 A
L x [a] D20
Chemical Method
This method is based on the reducing properties of sugars, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose (except sucrose because it has no aldehyde group). Even though fructose does not have an aldehyde group, it has an alpha hydroxy ketone group, so that it can still react.
In this chemical method there are two (2) kinds of ways, namely:
Titration
For the first way, it can see the standardized method by BSN, namely the SNI for food and beverage testing SNI number 01-2892-1992.
Spectrophotometry
The second method uses the principle of CuSO4 reduction reaction by carbonyl groups on reducing sugars which after heating is formed of oxide oxide deposits (Cu2O) and then added Na-citrate and Na-tatrate and phosphomolibdic acid to form a blue compound compound that can be measured by spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 630 nm.
Enzymatic Method
For this enzymatic method, it is very appropriate to be used for determining the sugar casing individually, due to the work of a very specific enzyme. Examples of enzymes that can be used are glucose oxidase and hexokinase. Both are used to measure glucose levels.
Glucose oxidase
D-Glucose + O2 by glucose oxidase à Gluconate Acid and H2O2
H2O2 + O-disianidin by the peroxidase enzyme à 2H2O + brown-oxidized O-disianidin (can be measured at 1540 nm)
Hexokinase
D-Glucose + ATP by hexokinase à Glucose-6-Phosphate + ADP
Glucose-6-Phosphate + NADP + by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase à Gluconate-6-Phosphate + NADPH + H + The presence of fluorescent NADPH (having chromophore groups) can be measured at 334 nm where the amount of NADPH formed is equal to the amount of glucose.
The three reactions above have almost the same principle, namely using an aldehyde group in sugar to reduce the Cu2SO4 compound to Cu2O (brick red enpadan) after being heated in an alkaline atmosphere (Benedict and Fehling) or acid (Barfoed) with the addition of a binding agent (chelating agent) like Na-citrate and K-Na-tatrat.
Iodine reaction
KH (poilisaccharide) + Iod (I2) à specific color (black blue)
Seliwanoff's reaction
KH (ketose) + H2SO4 à furfural à + resorcinol à red color.
KH (aldosa) + H2SO4 à furfural à + resorcinol à negative
Osazon reaction
This reaction can be used both for aldose and ketose solutions, by adding a phenylhydrazine solution, then heated to form a yellow crystal called hydrazone (osazon).
Quantitative Test
For the determination of carbohydrate levels can be done by physical, chemical, enzymatic, and chromatographic methods (not discussed).
Physical Method
There are two (2) types, namely:
Based on the refractive index
This method uses a device called a refractometer, which is by the formula:
X = [(A + B) C - BD)]
Where :
X =% of sucrose or sugar obtained
A = weight of sample solution (g)
B = weight of diluent solution (g)
C =% sucrose in camp A and B in the table
D =% sucrose in thinner B
Based on optical rotation
This method is used based on the optical properties of sugars that have an asymmetrical structure (can rotate the plane of polarization) so that it can be measured using a device called a polarimeter or digital polarimeter (the result can be known directly) called a sacarimeter.
According to Biot law; "The optical rotation size of each individual sugar is proportional to the concentration of the solution and the thickness of the liquid" so that it can be calculated using the formula:
[a] D20 = 100 A
L x C
Where :
[a] D20 = rotation type at 20 oC using
D = yellow light at a wavelength of 589 nm from the Na lamp
A = observed angle of rotation
C = content (in g / 100 ml)
L = tube length (dm)
so C = 100 A
L x [a] D20
Chemical Method
This method is based on the reducing properties of sugars, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose (except sucrose because it has no aldehyde group). Even though fructose does not have an aldehyde group, it has an alpha hydroxy ketone group, so that it can still react.
In this chemical method there are two (2) kinds of ways, namely:
Titration
For the first way, it can see the standardized method by BSN, namely the SNI for food and beverage testing SNI number 01-2892-1992.
Spectrophotometry
The second method uses the principle of CuSO4 reduction reaction by carbonyl groups on reducing sugars which after heating is formed of oxide oxide deposits (Cu2O) and then added Na-citrate and Na-tatrate and phosphomolibdic acid to form a blue compound compound that can be measured by spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 630 nm.
Enzymatic Method
For this enzymatic method, it is very appropriate to be used for determining the sugar casing individually, due to the work of a very specific enzyme. Examples of enzymes that can be used are glucose oxidase and hexokinase. Both are used to measure glucose levels.
Glucose oxidase
D-Glucose + O2 by glucose oxidase à Gluconate Acid and H2O2
H2O2 + O-disianidin by the peroxidase enzyme à 2H2O + brown-oxidized O-disianidin (can be measured at 1540 nm)
Hexokinase
D-Glucose + ATP by hexokinase à Glucose-6-Phosphate + ADP
Glucose-6-Phosphate + NADP + by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase à Gluconate-6-Phosphate + NADPH + H + The presence of fluorescent NADPH (having chromophore groups) can be measured at 334 nm where the amount of NADPH formed is equal to the amount of glucose.
Definition of Carbohydrates and Their Classification
Definition of Carbohydrates and Their Classification
Definition of Carbohydrates - Classification, Function, Source, Testing, Qualitative, Quantitative, Example: Carbohydrate is a compound consisting of molecules of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) or carbon and hydrate (H2O) so that they are called carbohydrate.
Definition of Carbohydrates
The word carbohydrate or often called charcoal hydrate is a calorie-producing substance with a calorie number 4. Carbohydrate is a food substance that contains an element C (Carbon), H (Hydrogen), and O (Oxygen).
Carbohydrates are broken down into a very simple sugar molecule such as glucose, fructose, and galactose in a digestive system. This sugar molecule is absorbed by the body.
Excess carbohydrates will be stored in a liver or muscle to form a glycogen and in the stomach area, around the kidneys, or under the skin in the form of fat. Foods that are a source of carbohydrate energy include rice, wheat, corn, cassava, sago, potatoes, bread, and sweet potatoes.
Carbohydrate Classification
Carbohydrates can be classified into two (2) types, namely simple carbohydrates with complex carbohydrates or can also be three (3) types, i.e.
1. Monosaccharides or Monosacrose
Monosaccharides are derived from Greek namely mono = one and sacchron = sugar. Monosaccharides can also be called simple sugars. Monosaccharides are compounds that have an aldehyde group or free ketones. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed.
The general formula is Cn (H2O) n or CnH2nOn. Monosaccharides are divided into thirosa, tertrosa, pentose, hexose, heptose etc., and also as aldose or ketose depending on whether they contain aldehydes or ketone groups.
Example: monosaccharides are Fructose, Erithrulosa, ribulose.
2. Oligosaccharides or Oligosakarosa
The word Oligosaccharide is derived from the Greek word Oligo, which means little. Oligosaccharides are sugar compounds that produce 2 to 10 molecules of the same or different monosaccharides in a hydrolysis.
Oligosaccharides produce 2 monosaccharide molecules in hydrolysis known as disaccharides, and which produce 3 or 4 monosaccharides each known as trisaccharides and tetracaccharides and so on. The general formula of disaccharide is Cn (H2O) n-1 and trisaccharide is Cn (H2O) n-2 and so on.
Example: disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, maltose etc.
3. Polysaccharides or Polysacchoses
The word Polysaccharide is derived from the Greek, which is poly which means a lot.
A polysaccharide is a complex sugar and produces more than 10 monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis and is divided depending on a type of molecule produced as a result of hydrolysis. monosaccharides of the same type or heteropolysaccharides ie, a monosaccharide of various types. General formula (C6H10O5) x.
Example: homopolysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin.
Carbohydrate Function
There are many functions of carbohydrates in their application in the food industry, pharmaceuticals and in everyday human life. Among the functions and uses are:
1. For the body's main energy source
Carbohydrates are for the body's main energy source and have the main function which has a role as the body's energy supply, every gram of carbohydrate contains 4 calories.
2. Energy reserves in muscles and liver
Its function is for the presence of carbohydrates in the human body, some of which is present in the blood as glucose for a body's energy, carbohydrates found in the liver and muscle tissue which are converted into glycogen, and some of the kabohydrate is converted to fat and stored in a muscle tissue that functions as a reserve body energy.
3. To facilitate digestion
Carbohydrates also function to facilitate intestinal peristalsis and to facilitate the removal of feces, and carbohydrates that cannot be digested like fiber can make you feel full.
4. As a natural sweetener
Carbohydrates function as givers of natural sweetness in foods, especially Disaccharides and types of carbohydrate Monosaccharides.
Carbohydrate Source
Many carbohydrate sources we meet include:
In grains, namely: Rice, corn, wheat and others.
In Fruits: Bananas and all kinds of fruit that tastes sweet.
In the Roots / tubers, namely among others: Sweet Potatoes, Cassava, Taro, Potatoes and so forth
On leaves: Green vegetables.
Carbohydrates have a very important function for the body to protect the body from disease.
Carbohydrate Testing
Here Is A Carbohydrate Test Through Qualitative and Quantitative Tests.
Qualitative Test
This test can be done in two (2) kinds of ways, namely; the first uses the color formation reaction and the second uses the principle of chromatography (TLC / Thin Layer Chromatography, GC / Gas Cromatography, HPLC / High Performance Liquid Cromatography).
Due to the efficiency of testing, in general for qualitative testing only the first principle is used namely the formation of color as a basis for determining the carbohydrate content in an ingredient. There are at least seven (7) kinds of color formation reactions, namely:
Molisch reaction
KH (pentose) + concentrated H2SO4 à furfural à + a naphthol à purple
KH (hexose) + concentrated H2SO4 à HM-furfural à + a naphthol à purple
Both of the above reactions are generally accepted, both for aldose (-CHO) and carbohydrate group ketosa (C = O).
Benedict's reaction
KH + camp CuSO4, Na-Citrate, Na2CO3 à Cu2O red brick deposits
Barfoed reaction
KH + camp CuSO4 and CH3COOH à Cu2O brick red precipitate
Fehling reaction
KH + camp CuSO4, K-Na-tatrat, NaOH à Cu2O red brick deposition
Definition of Carbohydrates - Classification, Function, Source, Testing, Qualitative, Quantitative, Example: Carbohydrate is a compound consisting of molecules of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) or carbon and hydrate (H2O) so that they are called carbohydrate.
Definition of Carbohydrates
The word carbohydrate or often called charcoal hydrate is a calorie-producing substance with a calorie number 4. Carbohydrate is a food substance that contains an element C (Carbon), H (Hydrogen), and O (Oxygen).
Carbohydrates are broken down into a very simple sugar molecule such as glucose, fructose, and galactose in a digestive system. This sugar molecule is absorbed by the body.
Excess carbohydrates will be stored in a liver or muscle to form a glycogen and in the stomach area, around the kidneys, or under the skin in the form of fat. Foods that are a source of carbohydrate energy include rice, wheat, corn, cassava, sago, potatoes, bread, and sweet potatoes.
Carbohydrate Classification
Carbohydrates can be classified into two (2) types, namely simple carbohydrates with complex carbohydrates or can also be three (3) types, i.e.
1. Monosaccharides or Monosacrose
Monosaccharides are derived from Greek namely mono = one and sacchron = sugar. Monosaccharides can also be called simple sugars. Monosaccharides are compounds that have an aldehyde group or free ketones. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed.
The general formula is Cn (H2O) n or CnH2nOn. Monosaccharides are divided into thirosa, tertrosa, pentose, hexose, heptose etc., and also as aldose or ketose depending on whether they contain aldehydes or ketone groups.
Example: monosaccharides are Fructose, Erithrulosa, ribulose.
2. Oligosaccharides or Oligosakarosa
The word Oligosaccharide is derived from the Greek word Oligo, which means little. Oligosaccharides are sugar compounds that produce 2 to 10 molecules of the same or different monosaccharides in a hydrolysis.
Oligosaccharides produce 2 monosaccharide molecules in hydrolysis known as disaccharides, and which produce 3 or 4 monosaccharides each known as trisaccharides and tetracaccharides and so on. The general formula of disaccharide is Cn (H2O) n-1 and trisaccharide is Cn (H2O) n-2 and so on.
Example: disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, maltose etc.
3. Polysaccharides or Polysacchoses
The word Polysaccharide is derived from the Greek, which is poly which means a lot.
A polysaccharide is a complex sugar and produces more than 10 monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis and is divided depending on a type of molecule produced as a result of hydrolysis. monosaccharides of the same type or heteropolysaccharides ie, a monosaccharide of various types. General formula (C6H10O5) x.
Example: homopolysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, pectin.
Carbohydrate Function
There are many functions of carbohydrates in their application in the food industry, pharmaceuticals and in everyday human life. Among the functions and uses are:
1. For the body's main energy source
Carbohydrates are for the body's main energy source and have the main function which has a role as the body's energy supply, every gram of carbohydrate contains 4 calories.
2. Energy reserves in muscles and liver
Its function is for the presence of carbohydrates in the human body, some of which is present in the blood as glucose for a body's energy, carbohydrates found in the liver and muscle tissue which are converted into glycogen, and some of the kabohydrate is converted to fat and stored in a muscle tissue that functions as a reserve body energy.
3. To facilitate digestion
Carbohydrates also function to facilitate intestinal peristalsis and to facilitate the removal of feces, and carbohydrates that cannot be digested like fiber can make you feel full.
4. As a natural sweetener
Carbohydrates function as givers of natural sweetness in foods, especially Disaccharides and types of carbohydrate Monosaccharides.
Carbohydrate Source
Many carbohydrate sources we meet include:
In grains, namely: Rice, corn, wheat and others.
In Fruits: Bananas and all kinds of fruit that tastes sweet.
In the Roots / tubers, namely among others: Sweet Potatoes, Cassava, Taro, Potatoes and so forth
On leaves: Green vegetables.
Carbohydrates have a very important function for the body to protect the body from disease.
Carbohydrate Testing
Here Is A Carbohydrate Test Through Qualitative and Quantitative Tests.
Qualitative Test
This test can be done in two (2) kinds of ways, namely; the first uses the color formation reaction and the second uses the principle of chromatography (TLC / Thin Layer Chromatography, GC / Gas Cromatography, HPLC / High Performance Liquid Cromatography).
Due to the efficiency of testing, in general for qualitative testing only the first principle is used namely the formation of color as a basis for determining the carbohydrate content in an ingredient. There are at least seven (7) kinds of color formation reactions, namely:
Molisch reaction
KH (pentose) + concentrated H2SO4 à furfural à + a naphthol à purple
KH (hexose) + concentrated H2SO4 à HM-furfural à + a naphthol à purple
Both of the above reactions are generally accepted, both for aldose (-CHO) and carbohydrate group ketosa (C = O).
Benedict's reaction
KH + camp CuSO4, Na-Citrate, Na2CO3 à Cu2O red brick deposits
Barfoed reaction
KH + camp CuSO4 and CH3COOH à Cu2O brick red precipitate
Fehling reaction
KH + camp CuSO4, K-Na-tatrat, NaOH à Cu2O red brick deposition
Maltose Definition and Nature
Maltose Definition and Nature
Maltose is a type of simple disaccharide sugar that is produced from the process of breaking down amulymes or starches by amylase enzymes. Maltose is also called sugar, disaccharide which contains two simple glucose molecules of sugar. Maltose is produced by the starch hydrolysis by the amylase enzyme, for example seeds germinate "like barley" and by breaking down starch and glycogen during the digestion process.
Maltose Definition and Nature
Maltose is used in brewing, soft drinks and food. The melting point is 102 degrees up to 103 degrees celsius. Maltose has the ability to reduce Fehling's solution, due to its free aldehyde. The oxidized aldehyde group gives positive results, which means that maltose is a reducing sugar, it has a sweet taste.
Maltosa Definition
Maltose is a biomelecule that has a carbohydrate group in it which is divided into three groups which are divided into important elements; carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Carbohydrates are arranged by O, H, C and are defined as aldehydes of polyhydroxy ketones or polyhydroxy.
It is generally divided into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides depending on the amount of residue. Maltose is a disacride formed by the union of two glucose units "monosaccharides" both of which are classified as hexose because each consists of six carbons.
Properties of Maltose
To be able to find out more about maltose, here are some of the properties it has:
Soluble in water.
Included in the types of reducing sugars.
The sweetness is not too strong.
Maltose is one of the types of disaccharides, there are other types of disaccharides that we can know namely latosa and sucrose. The three types of disaccharides have manisa properties but the characteristics of the three are different. Maltose can be converted into sugar alcohol. For the function of sugar alcohol which is also often called maltilol is usually used as an artificial sweetener in certain food products such as syrup or candy.
Maltilol that we consume from food can be absorbed by the body but slowly and only about 50% to 60% will be absorbed while the rest will be excreted. Sucrose is also the same as maltose often used as a food sweetener. It has a sweeter taste that is stronger and very safe for consumption.
And while for lactose which has another name for milk sugar, it can be found in milk and wahey. To be digested our body needs the enzyme lactase. But the problem is that some people have lactose intolerance where the lactase enzymes in their body are few and not enough to be able to digest lactose. Often we see babies or some people who are allergic to cow's milk because of its lactose content. If forced to be consumed can eat several symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting and others.
Maltose can easily be found in certain types of foods that are familiar. They are jam, extreme, chocolate, candy, bread and gum. Disaccharides including maltose can indeed help meet the needs of glucose in the body. But as mentioned above that maltose can only be absorbed by the body that is 50% to 60%, so the intake must certainly be limited.
Besides being found in processed food products, which actually is a natural food source that we digest can produce maltose in the body during the digestive process such as fruits, cereal, corn, potatoes, seeds and some types of vegetables. So in fact the need for maltose can be obtained from healthier and more natural food sources.
Thus the discussion of the Definition of Maltose and Its Properties, hopefully with this review can add insight and knowledge of all of you, thank you very much for your visit.
Maltose is a type of simple disaccharide sugar that is produced from the process of breaking down amulymes or starches by amylase enzymes. Maltose is also called sugar, disaccharide which contains two simple glucose molecules of sugar. Maltose is produced by the starch hydrolysis by the amylase enzyme, for example seeds germinate "like barley" and by breaking down starch and glycogen during the digestion process.
Maltose Definition and Nature
Maltose is used in brewing, soft drinks and food. The melting point is 102 degrees up to 103 degrees celsius. Maltose has the ability to reduce Fehling's solution, due to its free aldehyde. The oxidized aldehyde group gives positive results, which means that maltose is a reducing sugar, it has a sweet taste.
Maltosa Definition
Maltose is a biomelecule that has a carbohydrate group in it which is divided into three groups which are divided into important elements; carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Carbohydrates are arranged by O, H, C and are defined as aldehydes of polyhydroxy ketones or polyhydroxy.
It is generally divided into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides depending on the amount of residue. Maltose is a disacride formed by the union of two glucose units "monosaccharides" both of which are classified as hexose because each consists of six carbons.
Properties of Maltose
To be able to find out more about maltose, here are some of the properties it has:
Soluble in water.
Included in the types of reducing sugars.
The sweetness is not too strong.
Maltose is one of the types of disaccharides, there are other types of disaccharides that we can know namely latosa and sucrose. The three types of disaccharides have manisa properties but the characteristics of the three are different. Maltose can be converted into sugar alcohol. For the function of sugar alcohol which is also often called maltilol is usually used as an artificial sweetener in certain food products such as syrup or candy.
Maltilol that we consume from food can be absorbed by the body but slowly and only about 50% to 60% will be absorbed while the rest will be excreted. Sucrose is also the same as maltose often used as a food sweetener. It has a sweeter taste that is stronger and very safe for consumption.
And while for lactose which has another name for milk sugar, it can be found in milk and wahey. To be digested our body needs the enzyme lactase. But the problem is that some people have lactose intolerance where the lactase enzymes in their body are few and not enough to be able to digest lactose. Often we see babies or some people who are allergic to cow's milk because of its lactose content. If forced to be consumed can eat several symptoms such as diarrhea, vomiting and others.
Maltose can easily be found in certain types of foods that are familiar. They are jam, extreme, chocolate, candy, bread and gum. Disaccharides including maltose can indeed help meet the needs of glucose in the body. But as mentioned above that maltose can only be absorbed by the body that is 50% to 60%, so the intake must certainly be limited.
Besides being found in processed food products, which actually is a natural food source that we digest can produce maltose in the body during the digestive process such as fruits, cereal, corn, potatoes, seeds and some types of vegetables. So in fact the need for maltose can be obtained from healthier and more natural food sources.
Thus the discussion of the Definition of Maltose and Its Properties, hopefully with this review can add insight and knowledge of all of you, thank you very much for your visit.
Structure and Function of Leaves in Plants
Structure and Function of Leaves in Plants
In addition to roots and stems, plant leaves also have an important role. The following description of the structure and function of leaves in plants. Leaves including plant organs. An organ is a collection of several tissues that together perform a special function.
Acutus (pointed)
Obtutus (blunt)
Acuminatus (tapered)
Rotundus (rounded)
Emarginatus (notched)
the edges of the leaves meet and attach to one another.
Perfoliatus
Composition of leaf bones (nervation or vernation)
The bones of the leaves (nerves) according to their size can be divided into 3 types, namely:
Costa (mother leaf bone)
Lateral nerve (branch bones)
Veins (veins of leaves)
Based on the arrangement of leaf bones (nervation) (the direction of the large branch bones) can be divided into 4 groups, namely:
Penninervis (reinforced pinned)
Palminervis (boned fingers)
Cervinervis (curved bone)
Rectinervis (parallel to bone)
Leaf edge (margo)
Broadly speaking, the edge of the leaf can be divided into 2 types, namely:
Integer (even)
Diviscus (incised)
Also Read Articles That May Be Associated: Dynamic Fluid Material: Bernoulli's Law Formula, Definition, Types, Characteristics and Examples of Questions
Function of Leaves in Plants
The leaves have an important role for the survival of plants. I wonder what the function of leaves for plants? In general, the function of leaves in plants is to:
Making food through photosynthesis.
As a place for water expenditure through transpiration and mutation.
Absorb CO2 from the air.
Respiration.
Structure of Leaves Forming in Plants
In studying the structure and function of the leaves, of course, it cannot be separated from the tissues that make up the organ of the leaf. The following will be explained briefly about the structure of leaves and their functions along with the leaf constituent network image. In general, the composition of leaf tissue consists of epidermis, mesophyll (basic tissue), transport bundles, and additional tissue.
1) Epidermis
The epidermis is in the form of a single layer of cells whose walls are thickened from a wart (cuticle) or sometimes from lignin. In the epidermis there is a stomata (leaf mouth) flanked by two closing cells. Stomata are located on the upper surface only, for example in plants whose leaves are floating (on a lotus leaf), there are only on the lower surface, and some are on both leaf surfaces (top and bottom).
The Ficus plant has an epidermis composed of two layers of cells. Additional tools found among leaf epidemics include trichomes (hair) and fan cells. You can observe the shape of the epidermis and stomata in the following figure.
2) Mesophiles (basic tissue)
Mesophiles are composed of parenchymal cells that are tenuous and have a lot of space between cells. In most dicotyledonous plant leaves, mesophyll is differentiated into palisade parenchyma (pole tissue) and spongy parenchyma (spongy tissue).
Palisade cells are elongated, contain lots of chloroplasts, and are tightly arranged. Spongy parenchyma is irregular in shape, branched, contains less chloroplasts, and is tenuous.
3) Carrier File
Transport beam contained in the leaf bone that functions as a means of transport and as a leaf reinforcement.
4) Additional Networks
Additional tissue includes special cells that are commonly found in leaf mesophils, such as crystal cells and glands.
Dikotil Plant Leaves Network Composition Network
The structure and function of the leaves of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants are different. The shape of the dicotyledonous leaves of the plant varies, the leaf stem, and the leaf veins pinnate or pinch. Consider the following anatomic tissue composition of dicotyledonous leaves.
Epidermis
located on the top and bottom surface layers of leaves. The function of leaf epidermal tissue is to protect the inner layer of cells from drying out and maintain the shape of the leaves to remain. Its characteristics consist of one layer of cells except the Ficus plant (rubber plant).
Cuticle
located on the upper and lower surface of the leaf. The function of the leaf cuticle is to prevent water evaporation through the leaf surface. This feature of tissue is composed of a warty substance.
Stomata
located on the surface of the upper and lower leaves. The function of the stomata is as a way in and out of air. Whereas the stomata guard cell functions as a regulator of opening and closing the stomata. Characteristics of the leaf mouth in the epidermis with two closing cells.
Hair and glands
located on the upper and lower surface of the leaf. Its function is to place an expenditure. This tissue is an additional tool in the epidermis.
Mesophyll
located between the upper and lower epidermal layers. The function of the leaf mesophyll is for the site of photosynthesis. Mesophyll leaves consist of parenchyma cells, many spaces between cells. Most differentiate into palisade tissue (pole tissue) and sponges (spongy tissue). Pole network cells are cylindrical, tightly arranged, and contain chlorophyll. Spongy tissue cells are irregular in shape, branched and contain chloroplasts, the structure is tenuous.
Veins
lies in the leaf blade. Its function is to transport substances. Characteristics in the form of pinning or fingering.
Structure of Monocotyledon Leaves
Monocotyledonous plant leaves are shaped like a ribbon and on the base there are sheets that wrap the stem, and veins are parallel. The structure and function of the leaves of monocotyledonous plants can be explained as follows.
Epidermis and cuticles
located in the upper and lower surface layers of the leaf. The function of this tissue is to protect the inner layer of cells from drying out and prevent water evaporation through the leaf surface. The characteristics of this tissue are composed of one cell with thickening of the warts.
Stomata
located in a row between the veins. The function of this stomata is as a way in and out of air. Stomata are leaf mouths with two closing cells.
Mesophyll
located in the basin between the veins. This tissue is a place for foodstuffs to make through photosynthesis The characteristics of mesophyll in monocotyledon are not differentiated, the shape is uniform except that the mesophyll of the transporting beam is larger, the chloroplasts are less, and the walls are thicker.
Veins
located on a leaf blade. Its function is as transportation of substances. Leaf veins or leaf bone monocotyledonous plants are parallel.
In addition to roots and stems, plant leaves also have an important role. The following description of the structure and function of leaves in plants. Leaves including plant organs. An organ is a collection of several tissues that together perform a special function.
Acutus (pointed)
Obtutus (blunt)
Acuminatus (tapered)
Rotundus (rounded)
Emarginatus (notched)
the edges of the leaves meet and attach to one another.
Perfoliatus
Composition of leaf bones (nervation or vernation)
The bones of the leaves (nerves) according to their size can be divided into 3 types, namely:
Costa (mother leaf bone)
Lateral nerve (branch bones)
Veins (veins of leaves)
Based on the arrangement of leaf bones (nervation) (the direction of the large branch bones) can be divided into 4 groups, namely:
Penninervis (reinforced pinned)
Palminervis (boned fingers)
Cervinervis (curved bone)
Rectinervis (parallel to bone)
Leaf edge (margo)
Broadly speaking, the edge of the leaf can be divided into 2 types, namely:
Integer (even)
Diviscus (incised)
Also Read Articles That May Be Associated: Dynamic Fluid Material: Bernoulli's Law Formula, Definition, Types, Characteristics and Examples of Questions
Function of Leaves in Plants
The leaves have an important role for the survival of plants. I wonder what the function of leaves for plants? In general, the function of leaves in plants is to:
Making food through photosynthesis.
As a place for water expenditure through transpiration and mutation.
Absorb CO2 from the air.
Respiration.
Structure of Leaves Forming in Plants
In studying the structure and function of the leaves, of course, it cannot be separated from the tissues that make up the organ of the leaf. The following will be explained briefly about the structure of leaves and their functions along with the leaf constituent network image. In general, the composition of leaf tissue consists of epidermis, mesophyll (basic tissue), transport bundles, and additional tissue.
1) Epidermis
The epidermis is in the form of a single layer of cells whose walls are thickened from a wart (cuticle) or sometimes from lignin. In the epidermis there is a stomata (leaf mouth) flanked by two closing cells. Stomata are located on the upper surface only, for example in plants whose leaves are floating (on a lotus leaf), there are only on the lower surface, and some are on both leaf surfaces (top and bottom).
The Ficus plant has an epidermis composed of two layers of cells. Additional tools found among leaf epidemics include trichomes (hair) and fan cells. You can observe the shape of the epidermis and stomata in the following figure.
2) Mesophiles (basic tissue)
Mesophiles are composed of parenchymal cells that are tenuous and have a lot of space between cells. In most dicotyledonous plant leaves, mesophyll is differentiated into palisade parenchyma (pole tissue) and spongy parenchyma (spongy tissue).
Palisade cells are elongated, contain lots of chloroplasts, and are tightly arranged. Spongy parenchyma is irregular in shape, branched, contains less chloroplasts, and is tenuous.
3) Carrier File
Transport beam contained in the leaf bone that functions as a means of transport and as a leaf reinforcement.
4) Additional Networks
Additional tissue includes special cells that are commonly found in leaf mesophils, such as crystal cells and glands.
Dikotil Plant Leaves Network Composition Network
The structure and function of the leaves of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants are different. The shape of the dicotyledonous leaves of the plant varies, the leaf stem, and the leaf veins pinnate or pinch. Consider the following anatomic tissue composition of dicotyledonous leaves.
Epidermis
located on the top and bottom surface layers of leaves. The function of leaf epidermal tissue is to protect the inner layer of cells from drying out and maintain the shape of the leaves to remain. Its characteristics consist of one layer of cells except the Ficus plant (rubber plant).
Cuticle
located on the upper and lower surface of the leaf. The function of the leaf cuticle is to prevent water evaporation through the leaf surface. This feature of tissue is composed of a warty substance.
Stomata
located on the surface of the upper and lower leaves. The function of the stomata is as a way in and out of air. Whereas the stomata guard cell functions as a regulator of opening and closing the stomata. Characteristics of the leaf mouth in the epidermis with two closing cells.
Hair and glands
located on the upper and lower surface of the leaf. Its function is to place an expenditure. This tissue is an additional tool in the epidermis.
Mesophyll
located between the upper and lower epidermal layers. The function of the leaf mesophyll is for the site of photosynthesis. Mesophyll leaves consist of parenchyma cells, many spaces between cells. Most differentiate into palisade tissue (pole tissue) and sponges (spongy tissue). Pole network cells are cylindrical, tightly arranged, and contain chlorophyll. Spongy tissue cells are irregular in shape, branched and contain chloroplasts, the structure is tenuous.
Veins
lies in the leaf blade. Its function is to transport substances. Characteristics in the form of pinning or fingering.
Structure of Monocotyledon Leaves
Monocotyledonous plant leaves are shaped like a ribbon and on the base there are sheets that wrap the stem, and veins are parallel. The structure and function of the leaves of monocotyledonous plants can be explained as follows.
Epidermis and cuticles
located in the upper and lower surface layers of the leaf. The function of this tissue is to protect the inner layer of cells from drying out and prevent water evaporation through the leaf surface. The characteristics of this tissue are composed of one cell with thickening of the warts.
Stomata
located in a row between the veins. The function of this stomata is as a way in and out of air. Stomata are leaf mouths with two closing cells.
Mesophyll
located in the basin between the veins. This tissue is a place for foodstuffs to make through photosynthesis The characteristics of mesophyll in monocotyledon are not differentiated, the shape is uniform except that the mesophyll of the transporting beam is larger, the chloroplasts are less, and the walls are thicker.
Veins
located on a leaf blade. Its function is as transportation of substances. Leaf veins or leaf bone monocotyledonous plants are parallel.
Roof Membrane (ocrea or ochrea)
Roof Membrane (ocrea or ochrea)
this tool is in the form of a thin membrane that surrounds the base of a stem segment. so there is above a leaf stalk. The roof membrane is considered as a supporting leaf whose two sides are sticking together and encircling the stem, there are among others in polygonum sp.
Tongues (ligula)
a small membrane that is usually found at the boundary between upih and leaf blades on the grass (graminae). This tool is useful to prevent the flow of rainwater into the armpit between the stem and leaf leaves, so that the possibility of decay can be avoided.
Leaf top or leaf midrib
As explained above, not all plants have leafy leaves. Leafy leaves are generally only found in plants classified as monocotyledoneae only. grass tribe (gramineae), tribe empon-empon (zingiberaceae), banana (musa sapientum L.) palma group (palmea), etc.
Leaf upih aside from being part of a leaf attached to or embracing the stem, it can also have other functions:
As a protective bud that is still young, as can be seen in sugar cane plants (saccharum officinarum L.)
Giving strength to the stem of the plant. In this case the leaves are all wrapped around the stem, so that the stem is not visible, even what appears as the stem from the outside is the upih earlier. This of course is possible if the leaf upih is very large as for example banana (musa paradisiacal L.) The trunk that appears on a banana tree is actually not the trunk of a real plant from it is called pseudo stem.
Petioles
The petiole is the part of the leaf that supports the strands and is tasked to place the leaf strands in such a position that they can get as much sunlight as possible. The shape and size of the petiole varies greatly according to the type of plant, the size and shape can be different. Generally the cylindrical petiole with the top of it is slightly flattened and thickened at the base. If we look at the cross section we can find the following possibilities:
Round and hollow, for example papaya leaf stalks (carica papaya L.)
Flat and wide edges (winged), for example oranges (citrus sp.)
In terms of
Half circle and often the upper side is shallow or deep grooved as in a banana leaf stalk.
Although the leaf stalks as mentioned above are usually thickened at the base, there are also leaf stems thickened at the base there are also leaf stems thickened at the base and ends, for example on the leaves of a butterfly tree (bauhinia purpurea L.)
Furthermore, when viewed from the surface, leaf stems can show wrinkles, scales, hairs, lenticels, etc. In the description of the composition of the leaf he has also stated, that the leaf stalk can undergo a change of form (metamorphosis) into various leaf strands called phylodia.
Leaf blade
So many plants and varieties that have leaves whose strands vary too, both regarding the shape, size, and color. The properties of the leaf blade that need attention are:
Wake up leaves (circumscription)
The widest part is more or less in the middle of a leaf blade.
Possible wake leaves are:
Orbicularis (Round)
Peltatus (Shield)
Ovalis or elliptic (jorong)
Oblongus (elongated round)
Lanceolatus (lanceolate)
The widest part is more or less below the center of the leaf blade:
a) The base of the leaves is not etched.
Ovatus (ovate)
Triangularis (square terms)
Deltoideus (deltas)
Rhomboideus (rhombus)
b) Leaf base with incised or notched leaves.
Cordataus (heart)
Reniformis (kidney)
Sagittatus (arrow)
Hastatus (spear)
Auricular (eared)
Parts that are more or less above the middle of the leaf blade.
From this group the possible shape of the leaves:
bovatus (best ovate)
Obcordatus (wake up heart reversed)
Cuneatus (inverted triangle)
Sathulatus (wake spatula or spatula)
There is no widest part. Can be said from end to
until the base width is the same, from this part the possible shape of the daunya:
line (line build)
ligulatus (building tape)
ensiformis (sword building)
subulatus (wake nails or dabus)
Acerosus (wake of the needle)
Leaf tips (apex)
Acutus (pointed)
Obtutus (blunt)
Truncatus (romping)
Mucronatus (prickly)
Acuminatus (tapered)
Rotundus (rounded)
Retusus (split)
Leaf base (base)
The edges of the leaves never meet because they are separated by the base of the mother's bone or the tips of the petioles, at the base like this the shape is the same as the tips of the leaves.
this tool is in the form of a thin membrane that surrounds the base of a stem segment. so there is above a leaf stalk. The roof membrane is considered as a supporting leaf whose two sides are sticking together and encircling the stem, there are among others in polygonum sp.
Tongues (ligula)
a small membrane that is usually found at the boundary between upih and leaf blades on the grass (graminae). This tool is useful to prevent the flow of rainwater into the armpit between the stem and leaf leaves, so that the possibility of decay can be avoided.
Leaf top or leaf midrib
As explained above, not all plants have leafy leaves. Leafy leaves are generally only found in plants classified as monocotyledoneae only. grass tribe (gramineae), tribe empon-empon (zingiberaceae), banana (musa sapientum L.) palma group (palmea), etc.
Leaf upih aside from being part of a leaf attached to or embracing the stem, it can also have other functions:
As a protective bud that is still young, as can be seen in sugar cane plants (saccharum officinarum L.)
Giving strength to the stem of the plant. In this case the leaves are all wrapped around the stem, so that the stem is not visible, even what appears as the stem from the outside is the upih earlier. This of course is possible if the leaf upih is very large as for example banana (musa paradisiacal L.) The trunk that appears on a banana tree is actually not the trunk of a real plant from it is called pseudo stem.
Petioles
The petiole is the part of the leaf that supports the strands and is tasked to place the leaf strands in such a position that they can get as much sunlight as possible. The shape and size of the petiole varies greatly according to the type of plant, the size and shape can be different. Generally the cylindrical petiole with the top of it is slightly flattened and thickened at the base. If we look at the cross section we can find the following possibilities:
Round and hollow, for example papaya leaf stalks (carica papaya L.)
Flat and wide edges (winged), for example oranges (citrus sp.)
In terms of
Half circle and often the upper side is shallow or deep grooved as in a banana leaf stalk.
Although the leaf stalks as mentioned above are usually thickened at the base, there are also leaf stems thickened at the base there are also leaf stems thickened at the base and ends, for example on the leaves of a butterfly tree (bauhinia purpurea L.)
Furthermore, when viewed from the surface, leaf stems can show wrinkles, scales, hairs, lenticels, etc. In the description of the composition of the leaf he has also stated, that the leaf stalk can undergo a change of form (metamorphosis) into various leaf strands called phylodia.
Leaf blade
So many plants and varieties that have leaves whose strands vary too, both regarding the shape, size, and color. The properties of the leaf blade that need attention are:
Wake up leaves (circumscription)
The widest part is more or less in the middle of a leaf blade.
Possible wake leaves are:
Orbicularis (Round)
Peltatus (Shield)
Ovalis or elliptic (jorong)
Oblongus (elongated round)
Lanceolatus (lanceolate)
The widest part is more or less below the center of the leaf blade:
a) The base of the leaves is not etched.
Ovatus (ovate)
Triangularis (square terms)
Deltoideus (deltas)
Rhomboideus (rhombus)
b) Leaf base with incised or notched leaves.
Cordataus (heart)
Reniformis (kidney)
Sagittatus (arrow)
Hastatus (spear)
Auricular (eared)
Parts that are more or less above the middle of the leaf blade.
From this group the possible shape of the leaves:
bovatus (best ovate)
Obcordatus (wake up heart reversed)
Cuneatus (inverted triangle)
Sathulatus (wake spatula or spatula)
There is no widest part. Can be said from end to
until the base width is the same, from this part the possible shape of the daunya:
line (line build)
ligulatus (building tape)
ensiformis (sword building)
subulatus (wake nails or dabus)
Acerosus (wake of the needle)
Leaf tips (apex)
Acutus (pointed)
Obtutus (blunt)
Truncatus (romping)
Mucronatus (prickly)
Acuminatus (tapered)
Rotundus (rounded)
Retusus (split)
Leaf base (base)
The edges of the leaves never meet because they are separated by the base of the mother's bone or the tips of the petioles, at the base like this the shape is the same as the tips of the leaves.
Understanding Plant Leaves from Parts and Structures
Understanding Plant Leaves from Parts and Structures
Leaves - Definition, Parts, Stems, Strands, Structure, Upih, Functions, Example: Leaves are one part of a plant, without its leaves can be practically not a plant. On this occasion here will be a complete lecture about the leaves. Therefore, let us consider the review below.
Leaves Understanding Leaves
The leaf is one of the main organs of plants located on the stem, usually thin and widened rich in chlorophyll, therefore the leaves are usually green. In accordance with the shape of the thin leaf width, the green color and sitting on the stem facing up is in harmony with the function of the leaves for plants, namely:
Taking food substances (resorbsi)
Processing food (assimilation)
Water evaporation (transpiration)
Interpretation (respiration)
Leaf Parts
The complete leaf consists of leaf parts such as the midrib (vagina), stem (petiolus), and leaf blade (lamina). While leaves that do not have one or two of the three parts of the leaf are called incomplete leaves. Complete leaves can be found in several types of plants, for example: banana tree (Musa paradisiacal L), areca palm tree (Araca catechuL), bamboo (Bambusa sp), and others.
Incomplete Leaves Arrangement There are Several Possibilities:
It consists only of stems and strands
commonly called stemmed leaves, this is the most commonly found leaf structure. Most of the plants have such leaves, for example: jackfruit (artocarpus integra merr.) mango (mangifera indica L.) etc.
The leaves consist of upih and strands
such leaves are called leafy leaves or leafy leaves as is commonly found in plants belonging to tribes of grass, for example: rice (oryza sativa L.) corn (Zea mays L.) etc.
The leaves only consist of strands
without upih and stalks, so that the strands are directly attached to or sitting on the stem. Such an arrangement is called a sitting leaf (sessilis), as we can see in the bitch (colotropis gigantean R.Br.).
leaves that only consist of leaf blades can have such a wide base. so that the base of the leaf as if encircling the stem or hugging the stem. therefore also called: leaf hugging the stem (amplexi caulis) like the base of the leaves in tempuyung (sonchus oleraceus L ). the side of the base of the leaf that embraces the stem often wake up rounded and is called leaf ear.
The leaves only consist of stems
and in this case the stalk is usually then flat so that it resembles a leaf blade, so it is a pseudo or fake leaf blade, called: filodia, as found in various types of acacia trees originating from Australia, for example: acacia auricuculifor eg A.cunn.
Additional Or Complementary Tools For Leaves
In addition to the above sections and the possibility of whether or not the parts mentioned above, the leaves in a plant often have additional equipment or complementary include:
And the supporting (stipula)
which is usually in the form of two small leaf-like sheets that are located close to the base of the petiole and are generally useful for protecting young buds. There are times when large and wide leaf support is like a regular leaf and also useful as a tool for assimilation as found in peas. (pisum sativum L). Lean leaves are very easy to fall, such as jackfruit tree (artocarpus integra Merr.), but there are also those that stay long and fall with their leaves. For example on roses (rosa sp). can be distinguished in:
Free leaf support is found on the left of the base of the leaf stalk, called: free leaf support (stipulae liberae) found for example in peanuts (arachis hypogaea L).
Leveraging leaves attached to the left and right base of the petiole (stipulae adnatae) to the rose (rosa sp)
Leveraging leaves are attached together and take place in the armpit of the leaf (stipula axillaris or stipula intrapetioloris).
Leveraging leaves are attached and take place opposite the stem and are usually rather wide to encircle the stem (stipula petiolo opposite or stipula antidroma).
Leveraging leaves that adhere and take place between two leaf stalks as is often the case in plants which in one stem book have two leaves sitting facing each other, for example on the noni tree (morinda citrifolia L). Leaning leaf is thus called: interleave leaf stalk (stipula interpetiolaris).
Leaves - Definition, Parts, Stems, Strands, Structure, Upih, Functions, Example: Leaves are one part of a plant, without its leaves can be practically not a plant. On this occasion here will be a complete lecture about the leaves. Therefore, let us consider the review below.
Leaves Understanding Leaves
The leaf is one of the main organs of plants located on the stem, usually thin and widened rich in chlorophyll, therefore the leaves are usually green. In accordance with the shape of the thin leaf width, the green color and sitting on the stem facing up is in harmony with the function of the leaves for plants, namely:
Taking food substances (resorbsi)
Processing food (assimilation)
Water evaporation (transpiration)
Interpretation (respiration)
Leaf Parts
The complete leaf consists of leaf parts such as the midrib (vagina), stem (petiolus), and leaf blade (lamina). While leaves that do not have one or two of the three parts of the leaf are called incomplete leaves. Complete leaves can be found in several types of plants, for example: banana tree (Musa paradisiacal L), areca palm tree (Araca catechuL), bamboo (Bambusa sp), and others.
Incomplete Leaves Arrangement There are Several Possibilities:
It consists only of stems and strands
commonly called stemmed leaves, this is the most commonly found leaf structure. Most of the plants have such leaves, for example: jackfruit (artocarpus integra merr.) mango (mangifera indica L.) etc.
The leaves consist of upih and strands
such leaves are called leafy leaves or leafy leaves as is commonly found in plants belonging to tribes of grass, for example: rice (oryza sativa L.) corn (Zea mays L.) etc.
The leaves only consist of strands
without upih and stalks, so that the strands are directly attached to or sitting on the stem. Such an arrangement is called a sitting leaf (sessilis), as we can see in the bitch (colotropis gigantean R.Br.).
leaves that only consist of leaf blades can have such a wide base. so that the base of the leaf as if encircling the stem or hugging the stem. therefore also called: leaf hugging the stem (amplexi caulis) like the base of the leaves in tempuyung (sonchus oleraceus L ). the side of the base of the leaf that embraces the stem often wake up rounded and is called leaf ear.
The leaves only consist of stems
and in this case the stalk is usually then flat so that it resembles a leaf blade, so it is a pseudo or fake leaf blade, called: filodia, as found in various types of acacia trees originating from Australia, for example: acacia auricuculifor eg A.cunn.
Additional Or Complementary Tools For Leaves
In addition to the above sections and the possibility of whether or not the parts mentioned above, the leaves in a plant often have additional equipment or complementary include:
And the supporting (stipula)
which is usually in the form of two small leaf-like sheets that are located close to the base of the petiole and are generally useful for protecting young buds. There are times when large and wide leaf support is like a regular leaf and also useful as a tool for assimilation as found in peas. (pisum sativum L). Lean leaves are very easy to fall, such as jackfruit tree (artocarpus integra Merr.), but there are also those that stay long and fall with their leaves. For example on roses (rosa sp). can be distinguished in:
Free leaf support is found on the left of the base of the leaf stalk, called: free leaf support (stipulae liberae) found for example in peanuts (arachis hypogaea L).
Leveraging leaves attached to the left and right base of the petiole (stipulae adnatae) to the rose (rosa sp)
Leveraging leaves are attached together and take place in the armpit of the leaf (stipula axillaris or stipula intrapetioloris).
Leveraging leaves are attached and take place opposite the stem and are usually rather wide to encircle the stem (stipula petiolo opposite or stipula antidroma).
Leveraging leaves that adhere and take place between two leaf stalks as is often the case in plants which in one stem book have two leaves sitting facing each other, for example on the noni tree (morinda citrifolia L). Leaning leaf is thus called: interleave leaf stalk (stipula interpetiolaris).
Characteristics of Parenchymal Networks (Basic)
Characteristics of Parenchymal Networks (Basic)
Consisting of cells that are large and thin-walled
Has a hexagon cell shape
The location of the cell nucleus near the cell base
Has many vacuoles
Can be embryonal and meristematic
Has intercellular space
Function of Parenchyma Networks (Basic)
As a storage place for food reserves
Where photosynthesis takes place
As a supporting network
Various Types of Parenchymal Networks (Basic)
Parenchyma networks (basic) are grouped into two types, as follows:
Parenchyma Network Based on Function
Assimilation parenchyma (chlorenchyma): contains chlorophyll and functions for photosynthesis.
Water parenchyma: tissue contained in xerophyte or epiphytic plants as a hoarder / store of water to get through the dry season.
Hoarding parenchyma: A network that functions as a storage area for food reserves. This tissue is commonly found in roots, fruits, tubers, and stems. These foods can be in the form of solids, flour, fat, protein, sugar.
Air parenchyma (Aerenchymes): tissue that has intercellular space that functions in floating plants in water, this can be found on the leaf stalks of Canna sp.
Carrier parenchyma: The network that functions as a transport vessel both food and water.
Various Types of Parenchyma Networks Based on Their Form
Palisade parenchyma: the constituent of mesophyll in leaves. This tissue is found in seeds in the form of long, upright cells, which contain a lot of chloroplasts.
Spongy parenchyma: a constituent tissue of leaf size mesophyll and there is wide intercellular space.
Star parenchyma: tissue that can be found on Canna Sp. with a star-like shape that continues at the edges.
Parenchyma fold: tissue that can be found in mesiophils of pine leaves and rice. An inward fold occurs in the cell wall and contains a lot of chloroplasts.
3. Plant Supporting (Mechanical) Networks
Support network / reinforcement is a network that gives strength to plants so they can stand upright. Network supporting (reinforcing) plants are divided based on the nature and shape, among others, as follows.
a. Kolenkim Network
Kolenkim tissue is a network of support or reinforcement in young plant organs and herbaceous plants. Kolenkim is a living cell that is similar to parenchyma. There are cells that contain chloroplasts and play a role in the photosynthetic process.
Kolenkim is composed of living cells with active protoplasm and has an elongated shape with uneven thickening. Supporting networks function in strengthening plants. The cells are strong, thick and have specialized. This tissue also functions as a protective vescular dam seed.
Characteristics of the Kolenkim Network
Has a thick and strong structure
Can experience specialization
Available on stems, leaves and seeds
The cell is thickening at an angle
Thickening of cellulose
In general, groups form strands or cylinders
Function of the Kolenkim Network
Support and strengthen the shape of plants
Protect carrier files
Strengthen the parenchyma network
4. Sklerenkim Network
The sclerenkim network is a self-reinforcing network of dead cells. Sklerenkim has a strong cell wall, thick and contains lignin. Sklerenkim is divided into two types based on their shape, namely, fibers and sclereid (stone cells).
Fibers or fibers derived from meristem tissue consisting of long cells and clustered to form a webbing or ribbon. For example, banana leaf midrib. Whereas in sclereid (stone cells) is a network of sclerenkim whose cells are rounded with thickening cell walls. For example in the coconut shell or rice seed skin.
Characteristics of the Sklerenkim Network
Thickening in all parts of the cell wall
Thickening in the form of lignin
Dead cells
Generally found in plant organs that no longer experience growth and development
Located in the perisicle, cortex and between the xylem and phloem
Sklerenkim Network Function
As a tool to withstand external pressure
Protect and strengthen the inside of cells
As a supporting tool
5. Carrier Network
Carrier network is a network in charge of transporting substances. This network is divided into two as follows.
a. Xylem
Xylem is a food substance carrier by channeling water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and other body parts. Xylem consists of two kinds, among others, as follows ...
Tracheal element, consisting of trachea (tubular cells) and tracheids (long cells with holes in the cell walls)
Xylem fibers, consisting of long cells with tapered ends
Xylem parenchyma, contains substances such as food reserves, tannins and crystals
b. Floem
Phloem is a food carrier from photosynthesis from the leaves throughout the body. Phloem is composed among others as follows ...
Filter hairs, tubular with perforated ends
Companion cells, cylindrical with close plasma
Phloem fibers, long-shaped with a narrow tip and thick walls
Phloem parenchyma, the cell is living, has a primary wall with a small hole called a dot. Phloem parenchyma contains flour, resin or crystals.
6. Cork Network
Cork network is a network composed of cork cells that are elongated in shape. The cork network functions to protect other tissues that are underneath so that it is not too slight, not too much water loss. Cork cells can be found on the outer surface of the stem.
Cork Network Characteristics
Composed of cork parenchyma cells
Is a dead and empty cell
Elongated and cork walled
Various Kinds of Cork Networks
Cork network consists of two types, among others as follows ..
Felme: cork tissue formed by cork cambium outside directed and dead cells
Feloderm: cork tissue formed by cork cambium inwards and living cells resemble parenchyma.
That's the Review Hopefully what is reviewed above is useful for readers. That is all and thank you.
Consisting of cells that are large and thin-walled
Has a hexagon cell shape
The location of the cell nucleus near the cell base
Has many vacuoles
Can be embryonal and meristematic
Has intercellular space
Function of Parenchyma Networks (Basic)
As a storage place for food reserves
Where photosynthesis takes place
As a supporting network
Various Types of Parenchymal Networks (Basic)
Parenchyma networks (basic) are grouped into two types, as follows:
Parenchyma Network Based on Function
Assimilation parenchyma (chlorenchyma): contains chlorophyll and functions for photosynthesis.
Water parenchyma: tissue contained in xerophyte or epiphytic plants as a hoarder / store of water to get through the dry season.
Hoarding parenchyma: A network that functions as a storage area for food reserves. This tissue is commonly found in roots, fruits, tubers, and stems. These foods can be in the form of solids, flour, fat, protein, sugar.
Air parenchyma (Aerenchymes): tissue that has intercellular space that functions in floating plants in water, this can be found on the leaf stalks of Canna sp.
Carrier parenchyma: The network that functions as a transport vessel both food and water.
Various Types of Parenchyma Networks Based on Their Form
Palisade parenchyma: the constituent of mesophyll in leaves. This tissue is found in seeds in the form of long, upright cells, which contain a lot of chloroplasts.
Spongy parenchyma: a constituent tissue of leaf size mesophyll and there is wide intercellular space.
Star parenchyma: tissue that can be found on Canna Sp. with a star-like shape that continues at the edges.
Parenchyma fold: tissue that can be found in mesiophils of pine leaves and rice. An inward fold occurs in the cell wall and contains a lot of chloroplasts.
3. Plant Supporting (Mechanical) Networks
Support network / reinforcement is a network that gives strength to plants so they can stand upright. Network supporting (reinforcing) plants are divided based on the nature and shape, among others, as follows.
a. Kolenkim Network
Kolenkim tissue is a network of support or reinforcement in young plant organs and herbaceous plants. Kolenkim is a living cell that is similar to parenchyma. There are cells that contain chloroplasts and play a role in the photosynthetic process.
Kolenkim is composed of living cells with active protoplasm and has an elongated shape with uneven thickening. Supporting networks function in strengthening plants. The cells are strong, thick and have specialized. This tissue also functions as a protective vescular dam seed.
Characteristics of the Kolenkim Network
Has a thick and strong structure
Can experience specialization
Available on stems, leaves and seeds
The cell is thickening at an angle
Thickening of cellulose
In general, groups form strands or cylinders
Function of the Kolenkim Network
Support and strengthen the shape of plants
Protect carrier files
Strengthen the parenchyma network
4. Sklerenkim Network
The sclerenkim network is a self-reinforcing network of dead cells. Sklerenkim has a strong cell wall, thick and contains lignin. Sklerenkim is divided into two types based on their shape, namely, fibers and sclereid (stone cells).
Fibers or fibers derived from meristem tissue consisting of long cells and clustered to form a webbing or ribbon. For example, banana leaf midrib. Whereas in sclereid (stone cells) is a network of sclerenkim whose cells are rounded with thickening cell walls. For example in the coconut shell or rice seed skin.
Characteristics of the Sklerenkim Network
Thickening in all parts of the cell wall
Thickening in the form of lignin
Dead cells
Generally found in plant organs that no longer experience growth and development
Located in the perisicle, cortex and between the xylem and phloem
Sklerenkim Network Function
As a tool to withstand external pressure
Protect and strengthen the inside of cells
As a supporting tool
5. Carrier Network
Carrier network is a network in charge of transporting substances. This network is divided into two as follows.
a. Xylem
Xylem is a food substance carrier by channeling water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and other body parts. Xylem consists of two kinds, among others, as follows ...
Tracheal element, consisting of trachea (tubular cells) and tracheids (long cells with holes in the cell walls)
Xylem fibers, consisting of long cells with tapered ends
Xylem parenchyma, contains substances such as food reserves, tannins and crystals
b. Floem
Phloem is a food carrier from photosynthesis from the leaves throughout the body. Phloem is composed among others as follows ...
Filter hairs, tubular with perforated ends
Companion cells, cylindrical with close plasma
Phloem fibers, long-shaped with a narrow tip and thick walls
Phloem parenchyma, the cell is living, has a primary wall with a small hole called a dot. Phloem parenchyma contains flour, resin or crystals.
6. Cork Network
Cork network is a network composed of cork cells that are elongated in shape. The cork network functions to protect other tissues that are underneath so that it is not too slight, not too much water loss. Cork cells can be found on the outer surface of the stem.
Cork Network Characteristics
Composed of cork parenchyma cells
Is a dead and empty cell
Elongated and cork walled
Various Kinds of Cork Networks
Cork network consists of two types, among others as follows ..
Felme: cork tissue formed by cork cambium outside directed and dead cells
Feloderm: cork tissue formed by cork cambium inwards and living cells resemble parenchyma.
That's the Review Hopefully what is reviewed above is useful for readers. That is all and thank you.
Plant Tissue Material
Plant Tissue Material
Plants are composed of cells which will then form a network. Network is a group of cells that have the same structure and function and are bound by inter-cell material to form a single unit. Early formation of plants begins from the meristem tissue. the meristem network will be specialized into different groups called simple networks.
This simple network consists of cells that have the same structure as parenchyma, kolenkim and sclerenkim. This meristem network will then be active in mitotic division. The ability of the tissues to bermitosis continuously causes new cells to continue to grow so that cells undergo changes in cell properties and experience differentiation.
In addition, as a result of this cell division will also form a variety of complex tissues that do not have the inability to divide again or become tissue that is not meristematic.
Understanding Plant Networks According to Experts
Plant tissue is a network composed of cells that have different titopotential abilities than animal tissue, plant tissue is a network that has the ability if these plant organisms can reproduce themselves negatively in the body's ability to grow composed of cells (Nurhayati, 2012, p.6).
The basic tissue system synthesizes organic compounds that support the plant and provide storage for these plants, some kolenkim and sclerenkim cells (Avivi, 2004, p.27).
Plant tissue is a collection of plant cells that have the same shape, origin, function and structure. Plant tissue consists of young (meristem) and adult tissue (Soerdikoesomo, 2007, p.177).
Structure and Function of Plant Networks
Plants are grouped in 6 types, including the following:
1. Plant Meristem (Embryonic) Networks
Understanding Meristem Network - Meristem tissue is a young network of a group of actively dividing plant cells. Meristem cells will produce new cells that part of the result of division will remain in the meristem, this is referred to as the initial cell or initials. While from new cells, they are replaced by meristem cells called derivatives.
Meristem Network Characteristics
Small cell size
Consists of young cells in the phase of division and growth
Thin-walled cells
Has a relatively large nucleus
Small vacuoles
Many contain cytoplasm
The cell is cube shaped
Types of Meristem Networks
Meristem networks are grouped into several types as follows;
Meristem Networks Based on Position in Plants
Apical meristem: located at the tip of the main apex and lateral shoots and root tips
Intercalar meristem: exists between adult tissues, for example in meristem base of plant segments of grass tribes
Lateral meristem: located parallel to the surface of the organ found, for example in cambium and cork cambium (phelogen).
Types of Meristem Networks Based on Their Origin
Primary meristem: when cells develop directly from embryonic cells (apical meristems)
Secondary meristem: when the cells develop and mature tissues that have undergone differentiation. For example cambium and cork cambium (phelogen).
2. Adult (Permanent) Plant tissue
Adult meristem network is a network that has undergone differentiation. This network no longer experiences division or is not active.
Characteristics of Adult (Permanent) Network
Not actively dividing
Larger than meristem network
Having a large vacuole, so it has a small cell plasma and is a membrane attached to the cell wall
Between the cells has intercellular space
Cells have experienced wall thickening according to their function
Various Types of Adult Tissues (Permanent)
Adult networks can consist of several kinds which are distinguished based on their form and function. The types of adult (permanent) tissue are as follows:
a. Epidermis Tissue (Protector)
Epidermal tissue is the outermost layer in each organ of the plant such as roots, stems, leaves, fruit, flowers, seeds). The epidermis tissue functions as a protective covering all plant organs. Epidermal tissue originates from the protoderm. After being old it can still be present or damaged, and if it is damaged then the epidermal tissue will be replaced by cork. Generally the epidermal layer consists of only a few layers, but there are also more with a variety of shapes and sizes.
Epidermal tissue characteristics
Has a tight cell arrangement without space between cells
Consisting of living cells
Cell walls vary depending on the position and type of plant
Has a live protoplasm that contains salt crystals, gum, silicate crystals, and oil.
Has a large vacuole that can contain anthocyanin
Does not chloroplast, except in the cell cover, the hydrofit, and plants under the shade
Modified by forming epidermal tissue derivatives such as stomata, vilaments, trichomata (hairs), grit cells (silica cells), spines (spines), fan cells.
The function of the epidermis tissue
Aside from being a protective function, epidermal tissue also has other functions. The various functions of the epidermis are as follows ...
Limit evaporation
Water absorption and storage
Mechanical backers
b. Parenchyma Network (Basic)
Parenkin tissue (basic) is the tissue found in all plant organs. Parenchymal tissue is formed from living cells with diverse morphological and siological structures. Can be called a basic network because it has a role as a constituent of most tissues in the roots, stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds.
Characteristics of Parenchymal Networks (Basic)
Consisting of cells that are large and thin-walled
Has a hexagon cell shape
The location of the cell nucleus near the cell base
Has many vacuoles
Can be embryonal and meristematic
Has intercellular space
Plants are composed of cells which will then form a network. Network is a group of cells that have the same structure and function and are bound by inter-cell material to form a single unit. Early formation of plants begins from the meristem tissue. the meristem network will be specialized into different groups called simple networks.
This simple network consists of cells that have the same structure as parenchyma, kolenkim and sclerenkim. This meristem network will then be active in mitotic division. The ability of the tissues to bermitosis continuously causes new cells to continue to grow so that cells undergo changes in cell properties and experience differentiation.
In addition, as a result of this cell division will also form a variety of complex tissues that do not have the inability to divide again or become tissue that is not meristematic.
Understanding Plant Networks According to Experts
Plant tissue is a network composed of cells that have different titopotential abilities than animal tissue, plant tissue is a network that has the ability if these plant organisms can reproduce themselves negatively in the body's ability to grow composed of cells (Nurhayati, 2012, p.6).
The basic tissue system synthesizes organic compounds that support the plant and provide storage for these plants, some kolenkim and sclerenkim cells (Avivi, 2004, p.27).
Plant tissue is a collection of plant cells that have the same shape, origin, function and structure. Plant tissue consists of young (meristem) and adult tissue (Soerdikoesomo, 2007, p.177).
Structure and Function of Plant Networks
Plants are grouped in 6 types, including the following:
1. Plant Meristem (Embryonic) Networks
Understanding Meristem Network - Meristem tissue is a young network of a group of actively dividing plant cells. Meristem cells will produce new cells that part of the result of division will remain in the meristem, this is referred to as the initial cell or initials. While from new cells, they are replaced by meristem cells called derivatives.
Meristem Network Characteristics
Small cell size
Consists of young cells in the phase of division and growth
Thin-walled cells
Has a relatively large nucleus
Small vacuoles
Many contain cytoplasm
The cell is cube shaped
Types of Meristem Networks
Meristem networks are grouped into several types as follows;
Meristem Networks Based on Position in Plants
Apical meristem: located at the tip of the main apex and lateral shoots and root tips
Intercalar meristem: exists between adult tissues, for example in meristem base of plant segments of grass tribes
Lateral meristem: located parallel to the surface of the organ found, for example in cambium and cork cambium (phelogen).
Types of Meristem Networks Based on Their Origin
Primary meristem: when cells develop directly from embryonic cells (apical meristems)
Secondary meristem: when the cells develop and mature tissues that have undergone differentiation. For example cambium and cork cambium (phelogen).
2. Adult (Permanent) Plant tissue
Adult meristem network is a network that has undergone differentiation. This network no longer experiences division or is not active.
Characteristics of Adult (Permanent) Network
Not actively dividing
Larger than meristem network
Having a large vacuole, so it has a small cell plasma and is a membrane attached to the cell wall
Between the cells has intercellular space
Cells have experienced wall thickening according to their function
Various Types of Adult Tissues (Permanent)
Adult networks can consist of several kinds which are distinguished based on their form and function. The types of adult (permanent) tissue are as follows:
a. Epidermis Tissue (Protector)
Epidermal tissue is the outermost layer in each organ of the plant such as roots, stems, leaves, fruit, flowers, seeds). The epidermis tissue functions as a protective covering all plant organs. Epidermal tissue originates from the protoderm. After being old it can still be present or damaged, and if it is damaged then the epidermal tissue will be replaced by cork. Generally the epidermal layer consists of only a few layers, but there are also more with a variety of shapes and sizes.
Epidermal tissue characteristics
Has a tight cell arrangement without space between cells
Consisting of living cells
Cell walls vary depending on the position and type of plant
Has a live protoplasm that contains salt crystals, gum, silicate crystals, and oil.
Has a large vacuole that can contain anthocyanin
Does not chloroplast, except in the cell cover, the hydrofit, and plants under the shade
Modified by forming epidermal tissue derivatives such as stomata, vilaments, trichomata (hairs), grit cells (silica cells), spines (spines), fan cells.
The function of the epidermis tissue
Aside from being a protective function, epidermal tissue also has other functions. The various functions of the epidermis are as follows ...
Limit evaporation
Water absorption and storage
Mechanical backers
b. Parenchyma Network (Basic)
Parenkin tissue (basic) is the tissue found in all plant organs. Parenchymal tissue is formed from living cells with diverse morphological and siological structures. Can be called a basic network because it has a role as a constituent of most tissues in the roots, stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds.
Characteristics of Parenchymal Networks (Basic)
Consisting of cells that are large and thin-walled
Has a hexagon cell shape
The location of the cell nucleus near the cell base
Has many vacuoles
Can be embryonal and meristematic
Has intercellular space
Characteristics of Plant Cells
Characteristics of Plant Cells
Plant cells have special parts that distinguish them from animal cells or other eukaryotic cells. Here are organelles that are only found in plant cells:
A large vacuole whose volume is filled with water and is covered by a membrane called a tonoplast. The function of the tonoplast is to maintain turgor cells, control the movement of molecules between the cytosol and plant sap, store useful substances, and digest waste of proteins and organelles.
A cell wall consisting of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and some containing lignin. Produced by protoplasts outside the cell membrane. This is in contrast to fungal cell walls made of chitin and bacteria made from peptidoglycan.
A special communication path between cells known as plasmodesmata in the form of pores in the cell wall that connects plasmalema in cell one to the endoplasmic reticulum in another cell.
Plastids consisting of chloroplast, chromoplast, and leukoplast. Chloroplast contains chlorophyll which is useful for absorbing sunlight and allows plants to make their own food in a process known as photosynthesis. Chromoplast to synthesize and store pigments. Leukoplas is the colorless part of plastide and is useful for storing food reserves.
Cell division is done by forming phragmoplas as the basis.
Moss and pteridophyta, cyclic, and ginkgo male sex cells have flagella similar to cells in animals. However, in more complex plants (such as gymnosperms and flowering plants) there are no flagella and centrioles that are usually present in animal cells.
Parts and Function of Plant Cells
Image-Plant-Plant-Along With-Information
1. Nucleus (cell nucleus)
Nucleus
Nucleus (cell nucleus) is a cell organelle that is very unique and important, as the main place for cells to store chromosomes (genetic components) of certain cells. The nucleus has the function of coordinating metabolic processes, for example cell division, cell growth, and protein synthesis. The nucleus and its contents are called nucleoplasm.
2. Plastide (chloropas)
Chloropas plastids
Plastide (chloropas) is a collective term for organelles that functions to carry pigments. Chloroplast has a very prominent form of plastide which contains green chlorophyll pigment.
Because there are plastids (chloropas) containing green chlorophyll, plants are able to undergo photosynthesis well in the presence of water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide for the synthesis of food itself.
3. Ribosomes
Ribosome
Ribosomes are small cell organelles in the form of nucleoprotein granules. Ribosomes are composed of large subunits and small subunits, containing ribosomal RNA and RNAr and proteins in them.
Ribosomes are divided into 2 types which are present in the cytoplasm, namely the bound ribosome and the free ribosome. The main function of the ribosome is to produce and synthesize protein substances present in cells. To understand more about ribosomes, please read the structure and function of ribosomes (cell organelles).
4. Mitochondria
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are large, round rod-shaped organelles present in the cytoplasm of plant cells. Mitochondria are useful in breaking down complex carbohydrates and sugars that are utilized.
Mitochondria contain certain enzymes that are useful and important as energy supplies to plant cells. Mitochondria have a function as a place of respiration in the formation of ATP as a source of energy. Mitochondria are also known as cell power plants.
5. Golgi body (golgi apparatus)
Golgi Agency
The golgi body (golgi apparatus) consists of a collection of flattened vesicles which have the shape of a sisternae (winding) or in the form of a flat bag. Golgi bodies which are located in plant cells are called dichosomes, mostly found near cell membranes.
The main function of the Golgi body is to lift chemicals in and out of cells, after the RE (Endoplasmic Reticulum) synthesizes proteins and fats. The Golgi body changed and prepared it to export out of the cell.
6. Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is a connecting organel between the nucleus (nucleus) with the cytoplasm in plant cells. Basically it is an interconnected network, RE has convoluted pockets. There are 2 types of Endoplasmic Reticulum, namely Rough RE and RE Fine.
The structure of the Endoplasmic Reticulum can only be seen with an electron microscope. The function of the endoplasmic reticulum is as a synthetic carrier of fats and steroids, a place to store phospholipids, steroids, glycolipids, carry out detoxification of drugs and poisons.
7. vacuoles
Vacuoles
The vacuole is a membrane, as a storage area that helps in regulating tugor pressure from plant cells. More than one vacuole is found in plant cells. But vacuoles take up more space than others, which store a variety of chemical compounds. The vacuole also functions as a product of waste products and digestion of complex molecular instruments.
8. Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes of Micro Bodies
Peroxisomes are cytoplasmic organelles of plant cells that contain certain oxidative enzymes. The enzyme is used in the breakdown of fatty acid metabolism into simple sugars. The function of peroxisomes is to break down fatty acids into sugars and help chloropas in the photorespiration process.
Plant cells have special parts that distinguish them from animal cells or other eukaryotic cells. Here are organelles that are only found in plant cells:
A large vacuole whose volume is filled with water and is covered by a membrane called a tonoplast. The function of the tonoplast is to maintain turgor cells, control the movement of molecules between the cytosol and plant sap, store useful substances, and digest waste of proteins and organelles.
A cell wall consisting of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, and some containing lignin. Produced by protoplasts outside the cell membrane. This is in contrast to fungal cell walls made of chitin and bacteria made from peptidoglycan.
A special communication path between cells known as plasmodesmata in the form of pores in the cell wall that connects plasmalema in cell one to the endoplasmic reticulum in another cell.
Plastids consisting of chloroplast, chromoplast, and leukoplast. Chloroplast contains chlorophyll which is useful for absorbing sunlight and allows plants to make their own food in a process known as photosynthesis. Chromoplast to synthesize and store pigments. Leukoplas is the colorless part of plastide and is useful for storing food reserves.
Cell division is done by forming phragmoplas as the basis.
Moss and pteridophyta, cyclic, and ginkgo male sex cells have flagella similar to cells in animals. However, in more complex plants (such as gymnosperms and flowering plants) there are no flagella and centrioles that are usually present in animal cells.
Parts and Function of Plant Cells
Image-Plant-Plant-Along With-Information
1. Nucleus (cell nucleus)
Nucleus
Nucleus (cell nucleus) is a cell organelle that is very unique and important, as the main place for cells to store chromosomes (genetic components) of certain cells. The nucleus has the function of coordinating metabolic processes, for example cell division, cell growth, and protein synthesis. The nucleus and its contents are called nucleoplasm.
2. Plastide (chloropas)
Chloropas plastids
Plastide (chloropas) is a collective term for organelles that functions to carry pigments. Chloroplast has a very prominent form of plastide which contains green chlorophyll pigment.
Because there are plastids (chloropas) containing green chlorophyll, plants are able to undergo photosynthesis well in the presence of water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide for the synthesis of food itself.
3. Ribosomes
Ribosome
Ribosomes are small cell organelles in the form of nucleoprotein granules. Ribosomes are composed of large subunits and small subunits, containing ribosomal RNA and RNAr and proteins in them.
Ribosomes are divided into 2 types which are present in the cytoplasm, namely the bound ribosome and the free ribosome. The main function of the ribosome is to produce and synthesize protein substances present in cells. To understand more about ribosomes, please read the structure and function of ribosomes (cell organelles).
4. Mitochondria
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are large, round rod-shaped organelles present in the cytoplasm of plant cells. Mitochondria are useful in breaking down complex carbohydrates and sugars that are utilized.
Mitochondria contain certain enzymes that are useful and important as energy supplies to plant cells. Mitochondria have a function as a place of respiration in the formation of ATP as a source of energy. Mitochondria are also known as cell power plants.
5. Golgi body (golgi apparatus)
Golgi Agency
The golgi body (golgi apparatus) consists of a collection of flattened vesicles which have the shape of a sisternae (winding) or in the form of a flat bag. Golgi bodies which are located in plant cells are called dichosomes, mostly found near cell membranes.
The main function of the Golgi body is to lift chemicals in and out of cells, after the RE (Endoplasmic Reticulum) synthesizes proteins and fats. The Golgi body changed and prepared it to export out of the cell.
6. Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is a connecting organel between the nucleus (nucleus) with the cytoplasm in plant cells. Basically it is an interconnected network, RE has convoluted pockets. There are 2 types of Endoplasmic Reticulum, namely Rough RE and RE Fine.
The structure of the Endoplasmic Reticulum can only be seen with an electron microscope. The function of the endoplasmic reticulum is as a synthetic carrier of fats and steroids, a place to store phospholipids, steroids, glycolipids, carry out detoxification of drugs and poisons.
7. vacuoles
Vacuoles
The vacuole is a membrane, as a storage area that helps in regulating tugor pressure from plant cells. More than one vacuole is found in plant cells. But vacuoles take up more space than others, which store a variety of chemical compounds. The vacuole also functions as a product of waste products and digestion of complex molecular instruments.
8. Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes of Micro Bodies
Peroxisomes are cytoplasmic organelles of plant cells that contain certain oxidative enzymes. The enzyme is used in the breakdown of fatty acid metabolism into simple sugars. The function of peroxisomes is to break down fatty acids into sugars and help chloropas in the photorespiration process.
Complete Plant Cells and Functions
Complete Plant Cells and Functions
Plant Cells: Types, Parts, Images and Complete Functions - Do you know what is meant by plant cells ?? If you don't know it, you are absolutely right to visit gurupendukasi.com. Cells are the smallest units of living things. In cells there are protoplasms composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids. Based on the type of cell, it is divided into procharotic, which is a cell that does not have a core membrane and eukaryotic cells, ie cells that have a core membrane.
From the discovery of the cell and all its activities, the cell theory was born, that the cell is a structural unity, functional unity, growth unity, the necessity of heredity, and reproductive unity of living things.
Structurally the cell is a constituent of living things, part of the cell including the plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Plasma membranes are composed of lipoproteins, which are bonds between fat and protein.
Nucleus have nucleoli which function for ribosome synthesis, the nucleus functions to control cell activity. Cytoplasm contains cell organelles, such as the reticulum, endoplasm, ribosomes, golgi bodies, libosomes, mitochondria, microtubules, microfilaments.
Understanding Plant Cells
Plant cells are a group of eukaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are groups of cells that have genetic material (DNA) that is wrapped or wrapped by a membrane. Plant cells have a unique structure compared to other eukaryotic cells. The most basic difference is the rigid form of plant cells. This form is obtained from the outermost cell wall in the plant cell. The cell wall is composed of cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose, and lignin compounds which will strengthen the structure of plants.
Although animals and plants both have eukaryotes, they differ in certain characteristic features. For example, plant cells have well-developed cell walls and large vacuoles, whereas animal cells do not have these structures. Apart from differences in structure, in animal cells there are centrioles and middle filaments which are not found in plant cells.
Characteristics of plant cells that consist of organelles and cytoplasm, where all organelles (except the cell nucleus or neucleus) and subcellular structures in the cytoplasm will be covered by cell membranes or cell walls as a protective layer.
Types of Plant Cells
1. Parenchyma cells
Parenchyma cells are cells that have several functions ranging from storage, support to photosynthesis, where the phloem is bound. In addition to xylem and phloem that are bound to parenchyma cells, leaves also consist of parenchyma cells. Some parenchymal cells, such as the epidermis, function for light penetration and regulate gas exchange. Parenchymal cells have thin and permeable cell walls that allow the transport of small molecules in them.
Parenchyma cells can also grow into thorns which prevent herbivorous animals from eating them. Parenchyma cells that contain a lot of chloroplasts and play an important role in the process of photosynthesis are called chlorenchymal cells. Most parenchymal cells in potato tubers and cotyledons from legume seeds have a storage function.
2. Colenchyma cells
Colenchymal cells live as adults and only have a primary wall. These cells are mature and originate from meristems which initially resemble parenchymal cells. The plasticity does not develop and the secretory organelles (endoplasmic reticulum and golgi body) proliferate to remove additional primary walls. This wall is thick in the corners where three or more cells touch each other and thin in a part where only two cells touch.
Pectin and hemicellulose are the main contents of the collenchyma cell wall of open seeded plants (angiosperms). Colenchyma cells are usually quite elongated and transverse. The aim is to provide flexibility. The cell wall does not contain lignin so it becomes rigid.
3. Sklerenkim cells
Sclerenkim cells are hard and tough cells that give strength to plants. This cell consists of sclereid and fiber. There is a secondary wall that contains lignin so it is waterproof. Thus, these cells cannot last long because they cannot exchange substances to carry out metabolism. Sclerenkim cells will usually die at a certain time, cytoplasm will disappear, and leave the cavity empty.
4. Xylem cells
Xylem cells are cells that have lignified cell walls. This cell functions to transport water and nutrients from the soil (roots) to the leaves to carry out photosynthesis. Xylem cells first appeared in plants since 425 million years ago.
5. Phloem cells
Phloem cells are cells that make up special tissue for the transportation of nutrients in higher plants. Which is transported mainly sucrose. Phloem cells consist of two types of cells namely filter tubes and companion cells. In the sieve tube there is no cell nucleus and the ribosome and its metabolism is regulated by companion cells. Meanwhile, companion cells are connected to sieve tubes through plasmodesmata. Moss has no phloem.
6. Epidermal cells
Plant epidermal cells are special parenchymal cells found on all surfaces of leaves, stems and roots.
Plant Cells: Types, Parts, Images and Complete Functions - Do you know what is meant by plant cells ?? If you don't know it, you are absolutely right to visit gurupendukasi.com. Cells are the smallest units of living things. In cells there are protoplasms composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids. Based on the type of cell, it is divided into procharotic, which is a cell that does not have a core membrane and eukaryotic cells, ie cells that have a core membrane.
From the discovery of the cell and all its activities, the cell theory was born, that the cell is a structural unity, functional unity, growth unity, the necessity of heredity, and reproductive unity of living things.
Structurally the cell is a constituent of living things, part of the cell including the plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Plasma membranes are composed of lipoproteins, which are bonds between fat and protein.
Nucleus have nucleoli which function for ribosome synthesis, the nucleus functions to control cell activity. Cytoplasm contains cell organelles, such as the reticulum, endoplasm, ribosomes, golgi bodies, libosomes, mitochondria, microtubules, microfilaments.
Understanding Plant Cells
Plant cells are a group of eukaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are groups of cells that have genetic material (DNA) that is wrapped or wrapped by a membrane. Plant cells have a unique structure compared to other eukaryotic cells. The most basic difference is the rigid form of plant cells. This form is obtained from the outermost cell wall in the plant cell. The cell wall is composed of cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose, and lignin compounds which will strengthen the structure of plants.
Although animals and plants both have eukaryotes, they differ in certain characteristic features. For example, plant cells have well-developed cell walls and large vacuoles, whereas animal cells do not have these structures. Apart from differences in structure, in animal cells there are centrioles and middle filaments which are not found in plant cells.
Characteristics of plant cells that consist of organelles and cytoplasm, where all organelles (except the cell nucleus or neucleus) and subcellular structures in the cytoplasm will be covered by cell membranes or cell walls as a protective layer.
Types of Plant Cells
1. Parenchyma cells
Parenchyma cells are cells that have several functions ranging from storage, support to photosynthesis, where the phloem is bound. In addition to xylem and phloem that are bound to parenchyma cells, leaves also consist of parenchyma cells. Some parenchymal cells, such as the epidermis, function for light penetration and regulate gas exchange. Parenchymal cells have thin and permeable cell walls that allow the transport of small molecules in them.
Parenchyma cells can also grow into thorns which prevent herbivorous animals from eating them. Parenchyma cells that contain a lot of chloroplasts and play an important role in the process of photosynthesis are called chlorenchymal cells. Most parenchymal cells in potato tubers and cotyledons from legume seeds have a storage function.
2. Colenchyma cells
Colenchymal cells live as adults and only have a primary wall. These cells are mature and originate from meristems which initially resemble parenchymal cells. The plasticity does not develop and the secretory organelles (endoplasmic reticulum and golgi body) proliferate to remove additional primary walls. This wall is thick in the corners where three or more cells touch each other and thin in a part where only two cells touch.
Pectin and hemicellulose are the main contents of the collenchyma cell wall of open seeded plants (angiosperms). Colenchyma cells are usually quite elongated and transverse. The aim is to provide flexibility. The cell wall does not contain lignin so it becomes rigid.
3. Sklerenkim cells
Sclerenkim cells are hard and tough cells that give strength to plants. This cell consists of sclereid and fiber. There is a secondary wall that contains lignin so it is waterproof. Thus, these cells cannot last long because they cannot exchange substances to carry out metabolism. Sclerenkim cells will usually die at a certain time, cytoplasm will disappear, and leave the cavity empty.
4. Xylem cells
Xylem cells are cells that have lignified cell walls. This cell functions to transport water and nutrients from the soil (roots) to the leaves to carry out photosynthesis. Xylem cells first appeared in plants since 425 million years ago.
5. Phloem cells
Phloem cells are cells that make up special tissue for the transportation of nutrients in higher plants. Which is transported mainly sucrose. Phloem cells consist of two types of cells namely filter tubes and companion cells. In the sieve tube there is no cell nucleus and the ribosome and its metabolism is regulated by companion cells. Meanwhile, companion cells are connected to sieve tubes through plasmodesmata. Moss has no phloem.
6. Epidermal cells
Plant epidermal cells are special parenchymal cells found on all surfaces of leaves, stems and roots.
Colenkim Cell Composition and Fiber Sclerenkim
Colenkim Cell Composition and Fiber Sclerenkim
Can be found on stems, leaves as well as in the flowers, fruit and roots, especially if the roots are exposed to light. Colenchymal cell walls are examples of primary walls that expand and thicken as cells grow enlarged. Colenchymal walls consist mainly of cellulose and pectin compounds and contain a lot of water. Fresh colchemical wall ingredients contain about 67% water. Fahn (1982) states that according to Roelofsen, the collenchyma cell wall contains 45% pectin, 35% hemicellulose and about 20% cellulose.
Colenkim cell composition
Colenchymal cells have active protoplasts that are able to eliminate wall thickening when cells are stimulated to divide as they form cork cambium. Colenchymes such as parenchyma can contain chloroplasts so they can carry out photosynthesis.
Type Or Kinds Of Kolenkim
Angular Kolenkim (angular)
Thickening takes place at the corners, and extends along the axis of the cell. For example, in the leaf stalks of Vitis sp, Begonia sp, Solanum tuberosum.
Board Kolenkim (lamellar)
Thickening occurs in the tangential cell wall (parallel to the surface of the organ), so that the transverse slices look like rows of boards. For example, in the cortex of the Sambucus javanica stem.
Tubular collagen (lacuna)
It is present in the kolenkim which has intercellular spaces and its thickening occurs on the surface of the space between the cells. For example, on the leaf stalks Salvina, Malva, and Althaea.
Ring type kolenkim
At the cross section of the cell the lumen is circular. At the time of adulthood it appears that because of the type of continuous thickening angle on the cell wall, the lumen no longer angles.
Kinds of Kolenkim
Sklerenkim Network
Sclerenkim tissue is a supporting network found in plant organs that are no longer experiencing growth and development or in mature plants. The sclerenkim tissue consists of fibers (sclerenkim fibers) and sclereid (stone cells).
Sclerenkim tissue is a mechanical network that is only found in plant organs that no longer hold growth and development or plant organs that have been fixed. Sklerenkim serves to deal with all pressures so that it can protect weaker tissues.
Sklerenkim does not contain protoplasts, so the cells have died. The cell wall is thick due to a previous secondary thickening consisting of lignin.
Characteristics of cells in the sclerenkim tissue
The cells have died with thick cell walls
Thick secondary walls, generally composed of lignin
Chewy, generally no longer contains chloroplasts
The cells are stiffer than kolenkim, sclerekim cells cannot elongate
Type of sklerenkim network
A. The Fiber Sclerenkim (Fibers)
The sclerenkim fibers are made up of cells that are ± 2 mm long and have pointed edges. The sclerenkim fibers are cells that are already dead. The cell wall thickens from wood and contains lamella-cellulose lamellar so that the cell lumen is narrow. This fiber is in the form of a polygon, which is a pentagon or hexagon. The dots are narrow shaped like narrow slanted channels. The sclerenkim fibers in plants are formed together with the cessation of the growth of organs in plants.
The sclerenkim fibers are in the form of separate strands or in the form of circles in the cortex and phloem, in groups that are spread out in the xylem and phloem. In Gramineae, the sclerenkim fibers are arranged in a curved circular system connected to the epidermis. For more details, consider the following picture:
There are two types of sclerenkim fibers, which are as follows.
(1) Fibers Outside the Xylem (Extraxilaries)
Extraxilari fibers have lignin and some don't. This fiber can be used to make ropes, jute sacks, and textiles for clothing.
(2) Xylem Fiber (Xylem)
This type of fiber is the main component of wood because the walls contain lignin which causes the walls to be hard and stiff.
B. Stone Cells (Sklereid)
Sclereid is found in plant parts, including in the cortex, phloem, fruit and seeds. The sclereid wall is composed of cellulose which contains thick and hard lignin. In some plants, suberin and cutin are also sometimes found. The cells have narrow dots and circular gaps, forming channels called dots. The cell lumen is very narrow because of the thickening of the cell walls.
Sclereid may be found in singular or small clusters between cells, for example granules such as sand in guava flesh or a continuous period as in hard coconut shells. To understand the structure of these stone cells, consider the following picture!
Questions:
Question from group 1, by Katarina Nay.
Question: Why are colenchymes rarely found in the roots?
Answer: because the cellulose-walled kolenkim tissue and its function is only to strengthen young and woody stems. While at the root, there is a phloem network that functions to strengthen plants.
Question from group 3, by Selsiana Bara.
Question: why does the cell wall thickening collenchyma only occur in the tangesial cell wall?
Answer: because in some kinds of collenchyma, it has been divided based on their respective thickening spots. Like, the angle collagen that is thickening only occurs at the corner only and so is the case with a thick column that occurs in the tangesial cell wall (parallel to the surface of the organ).
Question from group 5, by Maria Lewa
Question: Explain the function of skelerenkim fibers and skelereid?
Answer: Both of these fibers have the same function, namely to deal with all pressures so as to protect weaker tissues and as a reinforcement, because they contain lignin (wood)
Can be found on stems, leaves as well as in the flowers, fruit and roots, especially if the roots are exposed to light. Colenchymal cell walls are examples of primary walls that expand and thicken as cells grow enlarged. Colenchymal walls consist mainly of cellulose and pectin compounds and contain a lot of water. Fresh colchemical wall ingredients contain about 67% water. Fahn (1982) states that according to Roelofsen, the collenchyma cell wall contains 45% pectin, 35% hemicellulose and about 20% cellulose.
Colenkim cell composition
Colenchymal cells have active protoplasts that are able to eliminate wall thickening when cells are stimulated to divide as they form cork cambium. Colenchymes such as parenchyma can contain chloroplasts so they can carry out photosynthesis.
Type Or Kinds Of Kolenkim
Angular Kolenkim (angular)
Thickening takes place at the corners, and extends along the axis of the cell. For example, in the leaf stalks of Vitis sp, Begonia sp, Solanum tuberosum.
Board Kolenkim (lamellar)
Thickening occurs in the tangential cell wall (parallel to the surface of the organ), so that the transverse slices look like rows of boards. For example, in the cortex of the Sambucus javanica stem.
Tubular collagen (lacuna)
It is present in the kolenkim which has intercellular spaces and its thickening occurs on the surface of the space between the cells. For example, on the leaf stalks Salvina, Malva, and Althaea.
Ring type kolenkim
At the cross section of the cell the lumen is circular. At the time of adulthood it appears that because of the type of continuous thickening angle on the cell wall, the lumen no longer angles.
Kinds of Kolenkim
Sklerenkim Network
Sclerenkim tissue is a supporting network found in plant organs that are no longer experiencing growth and development or in mature plants. The sclerenkim tissue consists of fibers (sclerenkim fibers) and sclereid (stone cells).
Sclerenkim tissue is a mechanical network that is only found in plant organs that no longer hold growth and development or plant organs that have been fixed. Sklerenkim serves to deal with all pressures so that it can protect weaker tissues.
Sklerenkim does not contain protoplasts, so the cells have died. The cell wall is thick due to a previous secondary thickening consisting of lignin.
Characteristics of cells in the sclerenkim tissue
The cells have died with thick cell walls
Thick secondary walls, generally composed of lignin
Chewy, generally no longer contains chloroplasts
The cells are stiffer than kolenkim, sclerekim cells cannot elongate
Type of sklerenkim network
A. The Fiber Sclerenkim (Fibers)
The sclerenkim fibers are made up of cells that are ± 2 mm long and have pointed edges. The sclerenkim fibers are cells that are already dead. The cell wall thickens from wood and contains lamella-cellulose lamellar so that the cell lumen is narrow. This fiber is in the form of a polygon, which is a pentagon or hexagon. The dots are narrow shaped like narrow slanted channels. The sclerenkim fibers in plants are formed together with the cessation of the growth of organs in plants.
The sclerenkim fibers are in the form of separate strands or in the form of circles in the cortex and phloem, in groups that are spread out in the xylem and phloem. In Gramineae, the sclerenkim fibers are arranged in a curved circular system connected to the epidermis. For more details, consider the following picture:
There are two types of sclerenkim fibers, which are as follows.
(1) Fibers Outside the Xylem (Extraxilaries)
Extraxilari fibers have lignin and some don't. This fiber can be used to make ropes, jute sacks, and textiles for clothing.
(2) Xylem Fiber (Xylem)
This type of fiber is the main component of wood because the walls contain lignin which causes the walls to be hard and stiff.
B. Stone Cells (Sklereid)
Sclereid is found in plant parts, including in the cortex, phloem, fruit and seeds. The sclereid wall is composed of cellulose which contains thick and hard lignin. In some plants, suberin and cutin are also sometimes found. The cells have narrow dots and circular gaps, forming channels called dots. The cell lumen is very narrow because of the thickening of the cell walls.
Sclereid may be found in singular or small clusters between cells, for example granules such as sand in guava flesh or a continuous period as in hard coconut shells. To understand the structure of these stone cells, consider the following picture!
Questions:
Question from group 1, by Katarina Nay.
Question: Why are colenchymes rarely found in the roots?
Answer: because the cellulose-walled kolenkim tissue and its function is only to strengthen young and woody stems. While at the root, there is a phloem network that functions to strengthen plants.
Question from group 3, by Selsiana Bara.
Question: why does the cell wall thickening collenchyma only occur in the tangesial cell wall?
Answer: because in some kinds of collenchyma, it has been divided based on their respective thickening spots. Like, the angle collagen that is thickening only occurs at the corner only and so is the case with a thick column that occurs in the tangesial cell wall (parallel to the surface of the organ).
Question from group 5, by Maria Lewa
Question: Explain the function of skelerenkim fibers and skelereid?
Answer: Both of these fibers have the same function, namely to deal with all pressures so as to protect weaker tissues and as a reinforcement, because they contain lignin (wood)
Kolenkim Network and Sklerenkim
Kolenkim Network and Sklerenkim
Kolenkim Network and Sklerenkim: Characteristics, Functions & Images - Kolenkim like sklerenkim, is a mechanical network in charge of supporting plants. The parts of plants that grow slowly experience little growth so that support by turgor in the parenchyma cell is sufficient. However, most stems grow quickly and the growing part often becomes long and lean. Such structures require supporting tissues that function when the organ in question grows and must be arranged by cells that can also extend themselves.
Colenchymal tissue occurs from procambium. This tissue is found in plant organs which are still actively carrying out growth and development. Composed of one type of cell that contains chloroplasts, so colenchyma can function for photosynthesis. When this cell is seen with a microscope, it appears that the cell walls are clear, white, shiny. Colenchyma are living cells that are slightly elongated, and generally have irregular wall thickening. Kolenkim only has a primary wall, soft, flexible and not berlignin.
Kolenkim Network and Sklerenkim
Kolenkim Network
Collagen tissue is living tissue as a support in young organelles. The shape is a short or round elongated prism. Is plastic and is composed of living cells with active protoplasm and collenchyma cells can contain chloroplasts. Can be found on stems, leaves as well as in the flowers and fruit. Usually kolenkim is directly under the epidermis. According to the thickening of the wall, kolenkim can be divided into three types namely angular kolenkim, kolenkim board, and lakuner kolenkim.
However, Duchaigne (1955 in Fahn, 1982) gave an additional one type of colenkim, namely the ring annex. In subsequent developments, collenchyma cell walls can undergo sclerification (thickening with lignin). Adult kolenkim is not flexible, harder and more fragile than young kolenkim. Adult kolenkim found in parts of plants that stop elongated.
Characteristics of the Kolenkim Network
The cells live with active protoplasm, the cells form slightly elongated
Generally have walls with irregular thickening
It does not have a secondary cell wall but has a primary wall that is thicker than the parenchyma cells
Soft, flexible and not lignin.
Cell contents can contain chloroplasts, the simpler the differentiation, the more chloroplasts, so that it resembles parenchyma, can also contain tannins.
Kolenkim function
Colenchyma becomes a specially adapted mechanical network to strengthen, support or support young growing organs and herbs to stand firm and strong. The thick and tight walls make it a strong supporter. The growth features and structure of the wall cause it to be able to adjust to organ lengthening without losing strength.
Colenchymal cells have the ability to increase the surface and wall thickness, therefore they can develop thick walls while the organ in which the kolenkim is located is elongated.
Kolenkim can be a substitute for sclerenkim if the plant where the kolenkim is located does not differentiate into sclerenkim. Thickening of the thicker collenchyma cell wall is affected by mechanical stress (wind, and load on the branches).
Also Read Materials That May Be Associated: Plant Cells: Complete Types, Parts, Images And Functions
Location of kolenkim in plants
Collagen tissue can be found in the stems, leaves, and in the flowers and fruit. In the stem, kolenkim can form a full cylinder or arranged into a file that extends parallel to the stem axis. In the leaves, kolenkim are on both sides of the main leaf bone or on one side only, and there are also along the edge of the leaf. Rarely found in the roots in the soil. Only sometimes plants whose roots soar above the ground are found kolenkim tissue, because the formation of kolenkim tissue occurs when exposed to sunlight. And usually kolenkim is directly under the epidermis.
Kolenkim structure
The size and shape are varied. Can be a short or elliptical prism like a fiber with a tapered tip and there is a transitional shape of the two shapes.
According to Muller, there are three main forms due to thickening of the collenchyma cell wall:
a). Angular kolenkim or anguler kolenkim. with thickening extending at the corner of the cell. In the cross section, thickening of the angle is seen at the meeting point of three or more cells. For example in the stem of Solanum tuberosum and in Salvia.
b). Plate or board collagen, with thickening especially on tangential walls. For example in the cortex of the Sambucus nigra stem
c). Lakuner kolenkim, which looks like angular kolenkim, but many contain intercellular space around which thickening of the walls occurs. For example on the Ambrosia stem.
d). Duchaigne (1955 in Fahn, 1982) provides an additional one type of colenchyma, namely the ring annex.
Kolenkim Network and Sklerenkim: Characteristics, Functions & Images - Kolenkim like sklerenkim, is a mechanical network in charge of supporting plants. The parts of plants that grow slowly experience little growth so that support by turgor in the parenchyma cell is sufficient. However, most stems grow quickly and the growing part often becomes long and lean. Such structures require supporting tissues that function when the organ in question grows and must be arranged by cells that can also extend themselves.
Colenchymal tissue occurs from procambium. This tissue is found in plant organs which are still actively carrying out growth and development. Composed of one type of cell that contains chloroplasts, so colenchyma can function for photosynthesis. When this cell is seen with a microscope, it appears that the cell walls are clear, white, shiny. Colenchyma are living cells that are slightly elongated, and generally have irregular wall thickening. Kolenkim only has a primary wall, soft, flexible and not berlignin.
Kolenkim Network and Sklerenkim
Kolenkim Network
Collagen tissue is living tissue as a support in young organelles. The shape is a short or round elongated prism. Is plastic and is composed of living cells with active protoplasm and collenchyma cells can contain chloroplasts. Can be found on stems, leaves as well as in the flowers and fruit. Usually kolenkim is directly under the epidermis. According to the thickening of the wall, kolenkim can be divided into three types namely angular kolenkim, kolenkim board, and lakuner kolenkim.
However, Duchaigne (1955 in Fahn, 1982) gave an additional one type of colenkim, namely the ring annex. In subsequent developments, collenchyma cell walls can undergo sclerification (thickening with lignin). Adult kolenkim is not flexible, harder and more fragile than young kolenkim. Adult kolenkim found in parts of plants that stop elongated.
Characteristics of the Kolenkim Network
The cells live with active protoplasm, the cells form slightly elongated
Generally have walls with irregular thickening
It does not have a secondary cell wall but has a primary wall that is thicker than the parenchyma cells
Soft, flexible and not lignin.
Cell contents can contain chloroplasts, the simpler the differentiation, the more chloroplasts, so that it resembles parenchyma, can also contain tannins.
Kolenkim function
Colenchyma becomes a specially adapted mechanical network to strengthen, support or support young growing organs and herbs to stand firm and strong. The thick and tight walls make it a strong supporter. The growth features and structure of the wall cause it to be able to adjust to organ lengthening without losing strength.
Colenchymal cells have the ability to increase the surface and wall thickness, therefore they can develop thick walls while the organ in which the kolenkim is located is elongated.
Kolenkim can be a substitute for sclerenkim if the plant where the kolenkim is located does not differentiate into sclerenkim. Thickening of the thicker collenchyma cell wall is affected by mechanical stress (wind, and load on the branches).
Also Read Materials That May Be Associated: Plant Cells: Complete Types, Parts, Images And Functions
Location of kolenkim in plants
Collagen tissue can be found in the stems, leaves, and in the flowers and fruit. In the stem, kolenkim can form a full cylinder or arranged into a file that extends parallel to the stem axis. In the leaves, kolenkim are on both sides of the main leaf bone or on one side only, and there are also along the edge of the leaf. Rarely found in the roots in the soil. Only sometimes plants whose roots soar above the ground are found kolenkim tissue, because the formation of kolenkim tissue occurs when exposed to sunlight. And usually kolenkim is directly under the epidermis.
Kolenkim structure
The size and shape are varied. Can be a short or elliptical prism like a fiber with a tapered tip and there is a transitional shape of the two shapes.
According to Muller, there are three main forms due to thickening of the collenchyma cell wall:
a). Angular kolenkim or anguler kolenkim. with thickening extending at the corner of the cell. In the cross section, thickening of the angle is seen at the meeting point of three or more cells. For example in the stem of Solanum tuberosum and in Salvia.
b). Plate or board collagen, with thickening especially on tangential walls. For example in the cortex of the Sambucus nigra stem
c). Lakuner kolenkim, which looks like angular kolenkim, but many contain intercellular space around which thickening of the walls occurs. For example on the Ambrosia stem.
d). Duchaigne (1955 in Fahn, 1982) provides an additional one type of colenchyma, namely the ring annex.
Scientific Understanding of Plant Roots
Scientific Understanding of Plant Roots
Understanding the roots - Parts, Nature, Structure, Kind, Process, Primary, Secondary: Root is one part of the plant and its growth that is in the soil.
Understanding the root
The root is one part of a plant and its growth is in the soil. Basically the roots are in the soil. The root has a color that is usually white or yellow. The shape of the roots in a plant on average is tapered at the edges. Tapered shape on the roots to make it easier for the roots to penetrate the soil.
Root is one of the plant organs that has the main function of which is to suck water and mineral salts from the soil. Water and minerals are useful for plants to grow. The root has an outer part consisting of the root growth area, root cap, and root hair. In the deepest parts of the root can be observed by cutting the root transversely.
Root Sections
The Following Are The Root Parts.
1. Epidermis
The epidermis is a cell that has a flat shape with a thin wall, and near the tip of the root, this epidermis cell will undergo a change in the form of root hairs which serves to expand a field to absorb water and minerals.
2. Cortex Root
One cell from this root has a large shape and vacuole. Plastids that are inside this cortex cell will usually store starch. therefore, generally in a plant that holds a food reserve, its roots will become more dominant when compared to other tissues.
3. Endodermis
This endodermic cell is one of the cells from the root that contains a suberin layer or a cork which is often called the caspary band, the ribbon is a unit between the middle lamella and a primary wall. In this section which will experience a secondary thickening, this endodermic tissue will date together with a cortex cell.
4. Central Cylinder
The central cylinder is contained within an endodermic cell which consists of a xylem network and also a phloem. In an outer layer of the central cylinder there is a pericambium or perisicle. In the normal middle part, if it is not filled with a network of vessels, then that part will be filled with a pith parenchyma.
Root Function
serves to support and is useful for strengthening and strengthening the establishment of a plant in which it lives.
Serves to absorb water & nutrients from the soil.
Serves as a place to store a food, such as carrots and sweet potatoes.
Serves to transport water & carry substances that have been absorbed to the body parts of plants
In a mangrove plant, the root has a function as a means of respiration.
Roots are one of the most important parts of plants to strengthen the founding of plants and to absorb water and nutrients.
Nature of the Root
The properties of roots are:
Is a part of plants that are usually found in the soil, with the direction of growing earth (geotrop) or toward the water (hydrotopes), leaving the air and light.
No books, no sequences and no punching of leaves or scales or other parts.
The color is not green, usually whitish or yellowish.
Grow on the edges.
The shape of the tip is often tapered, making it easier to penetrate the ground.
Root Structure
The structure of the roots can be divided into several types:
Root Structure
Root neck or root base (collum), which is the part of the root that connects to the base of the stem.
The root tip (apex radicis), the youngest part of the root, consists of tissues that can still say growth.
Root stem (corpus radicis), the part of the root between the root neck and the tip.
Root branches (radix lateral), ie parts of the root that are not directly connected to the base of the stem, but out of the main root. And each can branch out again.
Root fibers (fibrilla radicalis), branches of fine roots and fibrous.
Root hairs or root hairs (pilus radicalis), which is the root part which is really only a protrusion of long outer root skin cells. Shaped like a feather or hair, therefore called root hair or root hair. With the presence of these root hairs the root absorption area becomes greatly expanded, so that more water and food substances can be sucked.
The root cape (calyptras), which is the part of the root which is at its tip, consists of tissue that is useful for protecting the young and weak root tips.
Kind of - Kind of Root
The Following Are Types Of Roots.
Tap root
Tungang roots are primary roots or roots of institutions that continue to grow in size and length. This root will become the main root that supports the upright of plants and in its development forms smaller branches of akat.
Root fiber
Root fibers are roots that arise from the base of the stem as a substitute for primary roots or dead institutions. The taproot and fibrous root systems, each root can be branched out to expand the field of absorption and to strengthen the establishment of plants.
The Process of Transporting the Root
transportation process at the root can be divided into:
Extrafacular Transport
transport outside the conveyor file. At first the water and mineral salts that dissolve in the soil are absorbed by the hairs of the roots. Basically the liquid in plant cells is more concentrated than the solution in the soil.
This difference in concentration causes the solution in the soil to seep into plant cells through a semipermeable membrane that is diepidermis in the hairs of the roots. This event is called osmosis. After passing through the root hairs, the water then moves through the cortex, endodermis and the central cylinder.
Intrafascular Transportation
transportation that takes place in a tuft of transport vessels continues to move until it reaches the xylem vessels contained in the central cylinder. Water will move towards the leaf through the xylem vessels due to the power of capillarity in the xylem vessels.
Xylem vessels form like small pipes that can carry water stronger than large pipes. Furthermore, transpiration (evaporation) occurs at the leaves. The event of transpiration will result in the flow of water and mineral salts from the stems to the leaves, this is referred to as the ability of the leaves to absorb water and mineral salts.
Primary Root
Primary root is a root that continues to grow enlarged and elongated, this root will become a supporting root. Primary roots are often also called taproots and institutional roots.
Roots in plants have basic functions, including:
Creep the seeds in the soil
Absorb water and minerals from the soil
Distributing ingredients
Spare food storage organs
Secondary Root
Secondary roots are roots that grow from other roots, or can be called branch roots. Secondary growth is typical for dicotyledonous plant roots. Secondary growth is found in typical roots of Gymnosperms and Dicotyledoneae. Monocotyledoneae roots usually do not experience secondary growth.
Understanding the roots - Parts, Nature, Structure, Kind, Process, Primary, Secondary: Root is one part of the plant and its growth that is in the soil.
Understanding the root
The root is one part of a plant and its growth is in the soil. Basically the roots are in the soil. The root has a color that is usually white or yellow. The shape of the roots in a plant on average is tapered at the edges. Tapered shape on the roots to make it easier for the roots to penetrate the soil.
Root is one of the plant organs that has the main function of which is to suck water and mineral salts from the soil. Water and minerals are useful for plants to grow. The root has an outer part consisting of the root growth area, root cap, and root hair. In the deepest parts of the root can be observed by cutting the root transversely.
Root Sections
The Following Are The Root Parts.
1. Epidermis
The epidermis is a cell that has a flat shape with a thin wall, and near the tip of the root, this epidermis cell will undergo a change in the form of root hairs which serves to expand a field to absorb water and minerals.
2. Cortex Root
One cell from this root has a large shape and vacuole. Plastids that are inside this cortex cell will usually store starch. therefore, generally in a plant that holds a food reserve, its roots will become more dominant when compared to other tissues.
3. Endodermis
This endodermic cell is one of the cells from the root that contains a suberin layer or a cork which is often called the caspary band, the ribbon is a unit between the middle lamella and a primary wall. In this section which will experience a secondary thickening, this endodermic tissue will date together with a cortex cell.
4. Central Cylinder
The central cylinder is contained within an endodermic cell which consists of a xylem network and also a phloem. In an outer layer of the central cylinder there is a pericambium or perisicle. In the normal middle part, if it is not filled with a network of vessels, then that part will be filled with a pith parenchyma.
Root Function
serves to support and is useful for strengthening and strengthening the establishment of a plant in which it lives.
Serves to absorb water & nutrients from the soil.
Serves as a place to store a food, such as carrots and sweet potatoes.
Serves to transport water & carry substances that have been absorbed to the body parts of plants
In a mangrove plant, the root has a function as a means of respiration.
Roots are one of the most important parts of plants to strengthen the founding of plants and to absorb water and nutrients.
Nature of the Root
The properties of roots are:
Is a part of plants that are usually found in the soil, with the direction of growing earth (geotrop) or toward the water (hydrotopes), leaving the air and light.
No books, no sequences and no punching of leaves or scales or other parts.
The color is not green, usually whitish or yellowish.
Grow on the edges.
The shape of the tip is often tapered, making it easier to penetrate the ground.
Root Structure
The structure of the roots can be divided into several types:
Root Structure
Root neck or root base (collum), which is the part of the root that connects to the base of the stem.
The root tip (apex radicis), the youngest part of the root, consists of tissues that can still say growth.
Root stem (corpus radicis), the part of the root between the root neck and the tip.
Root branches (radix lateral), ie parts of the root that are not directly connected to the base of the stem, but out of the main root. And each can branch out again.
Root fibers (fibrilla radicalis), branches of fine roots and fibrous.
Root hairs or root hairs (pilus radicalis), which is the root part which is really only a protrusion of long outer root skin cells. Shaped like a feather or hair, therefore called root hair or root hair. With the presence of these root hairs the root absorption area becomes greatly expanded, so that more water and food substances can be sucked.
The root cape (calyptras), which is the part of the root which is at its tip, consists of tissue that is useful for protecting the young and weak root tips.
Kind of - Kind of Root
The Following Are Types Of Roots.
Tap root
Tungang roots are primary roots or roots of institutions that continue to grow in size and length. This root will become the main root that supports the upright of plants and in its development forms smaller branches of akat.
Root fiber
Root fibers are roots that arise from the base of the stem as a substitute for primary roots or dead institutions. The taproot and fibrous root systems, each root can be branched out to expand the field of absorption and to strengthen the establishment of plants.
The Process of Transporting the Root
transportation process at the root can be divided into:
Extrafacular Transport
transport outside the conveyor file. At first the water and mineral salts that dissolve in the soil are absorbed by the hairs of the roots. Basically the liquid in plant cells is more concentrated than the solution in the soil.
This difference in concentration causes the solution in the soil to seep into plant cells through a semipermeable membrane that is diepidermis in the hairs of the roots. This event is called osmosis. After passing through the root hairs, the water then moves through the cortex, endodermis and the central cylinder.
Intrafascular Transportation
transportation that takes place in a tuft of transport vessels continues to move until it reaches the xylem vessels contained in the central cylinder. Water will move towards the leaf through the xylem vessels due to the power of capillarity in the xylem vessels.
Xylem vessels form like small pipes that can carry water stronger than large pipes. Furthermore, transpiration (evaporation) occurs at the leaves. The event of transpiration will result in the flow of water and mineral salts from the stems to the leaves, this is referred to as the ability of the leaves to absorb water and mineral salts.
Primary Root
Primary root is a root that continues to grow enlarged and elongated, this root will become a supporting root. Primary roots are often also called taproots and institutional roots.
Roots in plants have basic functions, including:
Creep the seeds in the soil
Absorb water and minerals from the soil
Distributing ingredients
Spare food storage organs
Secondary Root
Secondary roots are roots that grow from other roots, or can be called branch roots. Secondary growth is typical for dicotyledonous plant roots. Secondary growth is found in typical roots of Gymnosperms and Dicotyledoneae. Monocotyledoneae roots usually do not experience secondary growth.
Types, Nature and Characteristics of Roots along with Examples
Types, Nature and Characteristics of Roots along with Examples
Types, Characteristics and Characteristics of Roots and Their Examples in Complete - On previous occasions I have discussed the Definition and Parts of the Root and Its 4 Complete Functions. For this occasion here will review the Types, and Characteristics of Roots and Their Characteristics. Therefore, let us consider the review below.
Types of Roots
1. Root fiber
This type of fibrous root is found in a monocot plant. But there are also dicotyledonous plants that can also have them (dicotyledonous plants are bred in two ways namely by means of grafting or by cuttings). In the main function of the root fibers that is to be able to strengthen its establishment in a plant.
2. Taproot
This type of root is usually found in a dicot plant. Taproot has the main function which is to store a food. Examples are: carrots, sweet potatoes and others.
Other types of roots namely adventitious roots include:
1. Hanging Root
A hanging root is a type of root that grows from the top of the stem and grows towards the ground. The position of the hanging root is seen hanging in the air. This hanging root has a function that is to absorb water vapor and a gas that is in the air. However, if the hanging root has reached the ground, then the hanging root will enter the soil and is useful for absorbing water and a mineral salt in the soil. Plants that have hanging roots, for example, banyan trees.
2. Breath Root
This type of root that grows out from the stem at the bottom. The root of the breath usually partly appears on a surface of the ground and also some of the others are in the ground. This root can look like it is supporting the upright on a stem. The root of the breath has many openings for air to enter. Which so that at the root of the breath has a function that is to breathe. Plants that have breath roots, for example, are mangrove and pandanus plants.
3. Sticky Root
Root sticking is one type of root that grows along the stem. This sticking root is in a plant that grows climbing. Root sticking has a function that is to attach the stem to a wall or other plants. one example of a plant that has a sticky root is betel plant.
Also read the related article references:
Understanding and parts of the root and 4 functions in full
Vegetative propagation of plants and their advantages and disadvantages
Definition of Strengthening Networks (Kolenkim-Sklerenkim) in Plants and Their Characteristics and Functions
Definition of Motion and Response to Plants and Examples
Understanding 100 Types and Parts of Interest
Complete understanding of type functions and stem structures
Root Traits
The root is one part of the plant that is usually in the soil, root growth leads to the soil.
In general, the root away from a light so that in its growth will be faster.
The root is not like other parts of the plant such as the stems and also leaves that have a green color because the leaves contain a chlorophyll, the color of the root which is whitish or yellowish.
The growth occurs at the root tip which is one of the primary growth points where there is a meristimatik tissue, as well as the apical dominance mechanism that occurs at a root.
At the tip of the root has a tapered shape and serves to penetrate the soil and can break rocks.
Nature of the Root
The root has properties that is one part of the plant whose position in the soil can continue to grow. The direction of movement of root growth is influenced by gravity (geotropy) or by water (hydrotropy). Roots can grow through the ground because it has a pointed tip. At a root there are no books which form segments. Generally, the roots are pale and do not have chlorophyll, so they cannot carry out photosynthesis.
In a plant root has an important role to uphold a plant so that the plant is strong to stand and stand.
That is a review of the Types, Nature and Characteristics of Roots along with Examples in Complete. Hopefully what is reviewed above is useful for the reader. That is all and thank you.
Types, Characteristics and Characteristics of Roots and Their Examples in Complete - On previous occasions I have discussed the Definition and Parts of the Root and Its 4 Complete Functions. For this occasion here will review the Types, and Characteristics of Roots and Their Characteristics. Therefore, let us consider the review below.
Types of Roots
1. Root fiber
This type of fibrous root is found in a monocot plant. But there are also dicotyledonous plants that can also have them (dicotyledonous plants are bred in two ways namely by means of grafting or by cuttings). In the main function of the root fibers that is to be able to strengthen its establishment in a plant.
2. Taproot
This type of root is usually found in a dicot plant. Taproot has the main function which is to store a food. Examples are: carrots, sweet potatoes and others.
Other types of roots namely adventitious roots include:
1. Hanging Root
A hanging root is a type of root that grows from the top of the stem and grows towards the ground. The position of the hanging root is seen hanging in the air. This hanging root has a function that is to absorb water vapor and a gas that is in the air. However, if the hanging root has reached the ground, then the hanging root will enter the soil and is useful for absorbing water and a mineral salt in the soil. Plants that have hanging roots, for example, banyan trees.
2. Breath Root
This type of root that grows out from the stem at the bottom. The root of the breath usually partly appears on a surface of the ground and also some of the others are in the ground. This root can look like it is supporting the upright on a stem. The root of the breath has many openings for air to enter. Which so that at the root of the breath has a function that is to breathe. Plants that have breath roots, for example, are mangrove and pandanus plants.
3. Sticky Root
Root sticking is one type of root that grows along the stem. This sticking root is in a plant that grows climbing. Root sticking has a function that is to attach the stem to a wall or other plants. one example of a plant that has a sticky root is betel plant.
Also read the related article references:
Understanding and parts of the root and 4 functions in full
Vegetative propagation of plants and their advantages and disadvantages
Definition of Strengthening Networks (Kolenkim-Sklerenkim) in Plants and Their Characteristics and Functions
Definition of Motion and Response to Plants and Examples
Understanding 100 Types and Parts of Interest
Complete understanding of type functions and stem structures
Root Traits
The root is one part of the plant that is usually in the soil, root growth leads to the soil.
In general, the root away from a light so that in its growth will be faster.
The root is not like other parts of the plant such as the stems and also leaves that have a green color because the leaves contain a chlorophyll, the color of the root which is whitish or yellowish.
The growth occurs at the root tip which is one of the primary growth points where there is a meristimatik tissue, as well as the apical dominance mechanism that occurs at a root.
At the tip of the root has a tapered shape and serves to penetrate the soil and can break rocks.
Nature of the Root
The root has properties that is one part of the plant whose position in the soil can continue to grow. The direction of movement of root growth is influenced by gravity (geotropy) or by water (hydrotropy). Roots can grow through the ground because it has a pointed tip. At a root there are no books which form segments. Generally, the roots are pale and do not have chlorophyll, so they cannot carry out photosynthesis.
In a plant root has an important role to uphold a plant so that the plant is strong to stand and stand.
That is a review of the Types, Nature and Characteristics of Roots along with Examples in Complete. Hopefully what is reviewed above is useful for the reader. That is all and thank you.
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